Understanding Persuasion: Concepts and Functions - Prof. J. Sanders, Study notes of Communication

Download Understanding Persuasion: Concepts and Functions - Prof. J. Sanders and more Study notes Communication in PDF only on Docsity! Key Review Concepts for Exam 1 Know what these mean, how they function in persuasion, what the component parts are (if relevant), be able to give examples, and apply concepts to analyze persuasion. The exams contain true/false, multiple choice, and essay questions. Some questions are drawn from lecture and class activities while others are drawn directly from the reading. 1. How is persuasion an art and science? - Science- Scientists often have to convince others that their research possesses scientific merit and social value and that they’ve properly designed and carried at their experiment and it’s correct. Must argue over other superior theories. Must persuade other scientists. - Art- Artist tend to express their opinions in and through their art. To increase awareness, change attitudes, alter beliefs, and shape opinions. 2. How pervasive is persuasion? Persuasion’s the central feature of human communication. We can’t avoid it! It’s also anindispensable ingredient in a number of professions. 3. What are the functions of studying persuasion? a. Become a more effective persuader yourself. “be all you can be”.( Instrumental function). b. Enhance ones knowledge and awareness of a variety of persuasive processes.” Knowledge is power”. So we are aware of our actions too. “inquiring minds want to know”. (Knowledge awareness function) c. Learning how persuasion works is vital in our view; serves as a defensive function. We are defenseless to persuasion at times. “Duck and Cover”. ( the defensive function) d. Serves as a debunking function, useful when traditional wisdom isn’t helpful, no can ferret out true from false”. (the debunking function) / debunking explore falseness of something. 4. What is persuasion? How is persuasion similar to and different from: manipulation, coercion, propaganda, indoctrination? (P33, 14, 28, 27, 12-13, 121-122) Persuasion is the art and science form (verbally, nonverbally, contextually…) wherein the communicator is trying to convince the listener to a certain idea. There are cases of pure persuasion, which are clear-cut cases – most people would agree that it is persuasion. Ex: “you should do this because of this” and there are borderline persuasion cases, where not everyone would agree that it is intended to persuade. - Persuasion : involves 1 or more persons who are engaged in the activity of creating, reinforcing, modifying or extinguishing beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and/or behaviors within the constraints of a given communication context. It’s a process. - Manipulation : It can be an aspect of persuasion. A persuader can decide to be unethical and wrong. They can be the use of manipulative symbols. - Coercion : Some argue that persuasion is noncoercive, as it “predisposes, but doesn’t impose”. Coercion can also be good, through the use of rewards, incentives and flattery. Free will is the defining part of coercion and whether or not you feel you have the right to still make your own decision. - Propaganda : This is just a label that describes persuasive messages or positions with which people disagree. It’s all in the eye of the beholder – previously this was a label that meant a message that was more biased through use of lies and deception, now the term means “suggestion” or influence through manipulation of symbols and psychology of individuals. The recipient comes to it voluntarily. This form of persuasion is practices in organizational groups, and involves mass persuasion. Relies on ethically suspect methods of influence. - Indoctrination : Term used to describe persuasive messages or positions… an asserted principle, ideology, opinions, points of view that are taught with a narrowed view according to the source – Ex: “The goal should be to teach politics, rather than to indoctrinate students in a narrow set of political beliefs” / Women should stay at home, men should make the money. 5. How does the arena/context in which persuasion occurs affect persuasion (both process and effects)? (p31-32) The context determines the nature of the communication process; face to face, advertising, etc… One factor is the number of communicators present, and also includes how synchronous or asynchronous the communication is. (Synchronous= simultaneous sending and receiving of messages – face to face, Asynchronous= the back and forth process that involves delay – email). This also includes nonverbal and verbal comm, the nature and the type of media sued in the persuasion (commercial, radio, magazine). Another is the goal of the participants (self-presentational, rational and instrumental goals). Then, there are sociocultural factors: people are from different cultures, and may persuade or be persuaded in another way. The context involves the totality of the relationships among all these factors - See handout from class on the wheel of persuasion (Gass and Seiter) 6. What do the following terms mean: meta-analysis, viral marketing, branding, pure persuasion, borderline persuasion? - Meta-analysis : A statistical technique that allows a researcher to combine the results of many separate investigations and determine them as if they were one big super study. Capable of revealing trends across a number of studies and resolving apparent inconsistencies among studies. - Viral marketing : A strategy that consumers will see products being used and talked about by other and then will follow suit. It’s all about relying on social proof and word of mouth. d. involvement e. need for cognition = can be personality based f. ability to process a message 14. Explain the Heuristic-Systematic Model of persuasion (HSM) and these related concepts: very similar to ELM, with the two separate routes of processing. a. systematic processing: more thoughtful, deliberate, analytical, and very much like central processing b. heuristic processing: relies on mental shortcuts, more reflexive (automatic) analogous to peripheral processing, it relies on decision rules (Ex: always tip 15%) which are activated by specific circumstances, available, accessible, applicable, and motivation & ability make differences c. decision rules: these are activated under appropriate circumstances ( don’t go shopping on payday), The are available ( stored in your memory for potential use), accessible (activated from memory) d. heuristic cues: Package over content – buying a product because it’s more pretty e. Simultaneous processing: Heuristic and systematic messages travel two routes, so the can process concurrently. f. sufficiency principle: people strive to know as much as they need to when they are making a decision, no more and no less, although they devote a lot of attention to issues that they deserve. 15. Explain the definition and characteristics of an attitude - Learned (not innate), and are predispositions to respond and represent favorable or unfavorable evaluations of things (reflect likes or dislikes, disagreements or agreements, positive or negative feelings) a. evaluative dimension: a central feature of attitude, express one’s attitudes. b. direction of attitude (positively or negatively balanced) c. degree of attitude (intensity) d. attitude object: old attitudes about things or towards certain things. 16. How are attitudes measured? - Standardized self-report scales: measuring attitudes via standardized scales based on self reports a. What are Likert scales? Measures graduations in attitudes “Equal appearing interval” scales remain the gold standard for measuring attitudes today. Easy to construct. Eg: You are a leader: strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree. b. What are semantic differentials? Scales as a means for measuring attitudes, based on connotative meanings words have or people, consists of bipolar adjective pairs or state opposites (stupid – intelligent) c. What are drawbacks to attitude scales? i. social desirability bias: people may modify their actions and words to what’s socially acceptable ii. non-attitudes: people don’t want to appear unintelligent, so they might simply make one up because they are afraid of looking uninformed iii. Acquiescence bias: some respondents are inclined to agree with any statement contained in a survey or questionnaire. They might want to have the same opinion they think that another has. iv. Mindfulness: some people are not mindful/aware of their own attitudes, so a survey won’t be very useful. 17. Explain the Theory of Reasoned action (TRA) and these related concepts: The theory of reasoned action offers a rational model of the persuasion process. TRA assumes that people are rational decision makers who make use of all the info available to them. a. Intentions: best guide to behavior, If someone has an intention, most often a behavior follows – intentions do not always predict behavior b. attitude toward the behavior: Intentions are the result of two additional components. Attitude toward a behavior is based on beliefs about the outcome of performing behavior and the evaluation of the outcome. c. beliefs about the outcome d. evaluation of the outcome e. subjective norm component: (2nd component) It’s a person’s perception of what others, especially relevant others, think about the behavior in question (drinking, wearing a helmet). Normative beliefs are a person’s motivation to comply, based don perceived social pressure by relevant others to engage in behavior in question. This is how willing a person is to conform to social pressure by relevant others – living up to expectations. f. role of gender and culture in the TRA: affects relative importance or the weight of the attitudinal and normative components. EX: Ted started drinking alcohol when he came to college Subjective norm component: “My friends want me to stop and start being myself again. Intention: “I’m going to stop drinking” Behavior: Ted goes to AA. 18. Explain the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) TBD is an extension of the theory of reasoned action with the addition of perceived behavioral control.  What are its key elements? Internal Factors: Amount of knowledge and skills one has (lack of knowledge could prevent someone from performing an intended action). External Factors: Resources one has (limited resources of extenuating circumstances, might also inhibit someone from carrying out an intended action). a. How is it similar to and different from the TRA? It is an extension of TRA but adds perceived behavioral control an increases behavioral predictability (the more we feel we have control over a situation, the better). TRA presumes that behavior’s generally under a person’s control while TPB acknowledges that behavior isn’t always voluntary. b. How does it explain persuasion? To persuade, one needs to bolster receiver’s perceived behavioral control (their confidence that they perform recommended action). The best way is to address ways to overcoming obstacles. Adding perceived behavioral control to equation did a much better job at explaining behavioral intent than TRA. 19. What explains the persistence of attitudes according to the ELM? Attitudes formed via the central route are more persistent and resistant to change than the ones formed via the peripheral route. While peripheral attitudes are more short- lived, control ones are more thoughtful, and internalized. To better persuade someone, first increase motivation, which might alter attitude and finally, adapting the message to receiver’s levels of understanding will increase ability to engage in central processing. 20. What are the following: self-monitoring, image-oriented advertising, narrowcasting vs broadcasting? Self-monitoring: Trait-like quality found in people. High-self monitors (HSMs) are more likely to adapt and more aware of their and others’ behaviors. Low-self monitors do their own thing. It is easier to persuade a HSM. Image-oriented advertising: Links products with favorable attitudes, values, and lifestyles. It isn’t necessarily true, but instead, an ideal version of life. Narrowcasting vs. broadcasting: Narrowcasting aims a certain message to a specific segment of public defined by values. Preferences, or demographics attribute rely on targeted audience. Meanwhile, broadcasting targets a message to a bigger, larger audience. 21. What are consistency theories? How does consistency work in persuasion? What’s dissonance? How do we cope with inconsistency or dissonance?  Consistency theories are what people use to make decisions most often times. People expect to be consistent (balance, harmony,…) , strive to maintain and preserve it among their beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. 25. What do the factor-analytic studies of credibility reveal? Ingredients that induce audience to believe a thing apart from any proof of it are good sense, good moral character, and goodwill. a. primary dimensions of credibility? Primary dimension- expertise (competence or qualification) , trustworthiness (character, safety, or personal integrity), and goodwill. b. secondary dimensions of credibility? Secondary dimension-How energetic, animated or enthusiastic source appears. It makes up extroversion(timid…), Composure (posed..) , and sociability (honest) c. What is the most important dimension of credibility? 26. What does it mean to say credibility as a peripheral cue? Motivation to pay attention to a message is lower, so take the peripheral route. Credibility doesn’t matter as much if receiver’s involvement’s already high, so credibility’s highly important when receiver involvement is low. 27. How is credibility related to involvement? (Pg 81) The ELM acknowledges that in most persuasive situations receivers tend to favor one route over another. Which route they favor depends, among other things, on their involvement in the issue. When receivers have a stake in the outcome their motivation to pay attention to a message is higher. They, thus, tend to favor the central route. When receivers have little at stake their motivation to pay attention to a message is lower. They, therefore, tend to favor the peripheral route. -Source Credibility exerts more influence on receivers who are no highly involved. -Credibility matters less if the receiver is already heavily involved. 28. What are the effects of fictitious spokespersons? (Pg 76) A spokesperson needs to be a good fit in order to be persuasive. Fictitious spokespersons can be effective in a few situations but are limited by their credibility. The issue with a fictitious spokesperson is that because they are fictitious, so are all of the things that make them credible. A fictitious spokesperson will be lacking in the primary dimensions (expertise, trustworthiness, goodwill) but may excel in the secondary dimensions (Extroversion, Composure, Sociability) One situation where a fictitious spokesperson might maintain some credibility is with children. (ex: Tony the tiger would be more persuasive to children than someone at the FDA however this would be the opposite for an adult.) Of institutional credibility? Institutions on the other hand may have abundance of expertise and in some cases trustworthiness and goodwill, but the institution itself is faceless and therefore would be lacking in the secondary dimensions. 29. What are effective strategies for increasing credibility? 1. Be prepared 2. Cite Evidence for your position and identify the sources of your evidence. 3. Cite your own or your sources’ qualifications and expertise on the topic issue up front. 4. Attempt to build trust by demonstrating to your listener that you are honest and sincere. 5. Display goodwill toward your audience. 6. Improve your likeability, or L-factor 7. Adopt a language and delivery style appropriate to the listener(s), topic, and setting. 8. Avoid a powerless style of communication. Use an assertive style of communication instead. 9. Emphasizing your similarity to another may indirectly enhance your credibility. 10. If you think you are perceived as having low credibility, try to increase receiver involvement and emphasize the central route to persuasion. 11. Have another source who is already perceived as highly credible introduce or endorse you. 30. How do demographic variables, (such as age, gender, ethnicity, intelligence) affect persuasion? (Pg 95) -Stereotypes cause men to be perceived as more competent females -Females are seen as warmer and more nurturing than males. -Females in professional rolls (politicians, doctors, etc) have issues with aversive strategies. -Cultural variability affects how influence attempts are fashioned and how people respond to them. -Commonly discussed is Collectivism vs Individualism. -Direct strategies are more commonly associated with individualistic cultures. -Less intelligent people are easier to persuade. -Complex persuasive messages require a more intelligent audience. 31. What are traits versus states? (Pg 98) A trait is a characteristic of a person presumed to be relatively stable across all situations. A state varies from situation to situation. Someone who has anxiety as a trait has anxiety across all situations where as anxiety as a state is something that is present only in certain situations. 32. What are the following and how do they affect persuasion: self-esteem, self- monitoring, dogmatism, authoritarianism, cognitive complexity, need for cognition, argumentativeness, verbal aggressiveness (pg 98-106) Self-esteem: Those are less likely to with high self-esteem are good receivers but yield less where those with low self-esteem are more likely to yield but are poor receivers. Anxiety: Anxiety is similar to low self-esteem. Anxious people are more likely to yield to a message but less likely to be receptive. High-self monitors: More sensitive to social cues; More likely to be persuaded if they though a social reward would be the result. More likely to be influenced by image based advertising. Low-self monitors: Individualistic, Less sensitive to social cues. More interested in product quality advertising or strong arguments. Authoritarianism: authoritarian people respect leadership and often follow their leaders blindly but are far less susceptible to being persuaded by others or outsiders. Dogmatism: Dogmatism is a more general type of authoritarianism. Where authoritarianism tends to include close minded conservatives, dogmatism tends to include close minded liberals. Cognitive Complexity: Those who are more cognitively complex are more likely to be able to see from the perspective of the listener and are much more persuasive. Need for Cognition: Those with a high need for cognition enjoy effortful thinking more than those with a low need. Verbal Aggressiveness: It is a destructive for of aggression that involves persuasion through threats, intimidation, profanity, and insults. Argumentativeness: is a constructive form of assertiveness and involves a tendency to defend and refute positions on controversial issues. College students perceive argumentative professors as having high credibility. 33. How do you analyze and adapt to audiences? (Pg 108 - 111) As the speaker you should know as much as you can about your audience so that you can create an “audience centered” and “listener oriented” argument. - Pay Attention to the situation -Keep your audience’s mind in mind -Remember the importance of audience states and traits -Don’t forget about the audience demographics What is market segmentation? Market segmentation is breaking down the market into manageable, definable segments and then targeting just one or two. 34. Which people are easiest to persuade? Which are most difficult? Younger people with average self-esteem who are highly involved and have a lower intelligence will be easy to persuade while Adults with high or low self-esteem, anxiety, have a higher intelligence, and a higher need for cognition will be very difficult to persuade. 35. What are implicit and explicit norms? How are they connected to persuasion? (Pg 117) Explicit norms are written or spoke openly while implicit norms are not so openly stated. Arguments that conflict with social norms are going to be less persuasive than those that are consistent with social norms.