learning and teaching : theories, approaches and models, Exercises of Psychology

Download learning and teaching : theories, approaches and models and more Exercises Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! LEARNING AND TEACHING : THEORIES, APPROACHES AND MODELS 2 CHAPTER 1: DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya Gazi University, Gazi Faculty of Education (Translated by Sakine Koca Sincer) The Meaning of Development In a general sense, psychology is a science that studies human and animal behaviours, and the reasons of these behaviours. The symbolic foundation date of psychology is 1879. In this year, Wilheml Wundt (1832-1920) established a psychology laboratory in Leipzig. Psychology is accepted to have started as a science with the establishment of this psychology laboratory. From the point that started with Wilhelm Wundt and his colleagues on, the period of consciousness has mostly been investigated through the method of introspection and the conscious of human has been tried to be analyzed.1 Psychology is a branch of science that aims at examining the interaction between environment, human being and behaviour. This branch of science is divided into sub-fields such as experimental psychology, social psychology, psychometric psychology and applied psychology. Fields of Psychology Experimental psy Social psy Psychometric psy Applied psy There are a lot of sub-branches under applied psychology. One of them is educational psychology. Educational psychology is about implementing the findings of psychology in the field of education. Educational psychology mainly composes two sub-fields. These are developmental psychology and psychology of learning. Developmental psychology is a field of psychology that examines the physical, psychological, cognitive and behavioral changes of a person from the birth to the death. Developmental psychology is one of the basic fields from which educational psychology benefits; because being aware of the developmental features of students’ ages ensures an increase in the efficiency of educational period. Some Theories and Approaches about Development The concept of theory can be defined as the group of predications that brings forward proposals in order to find the reasons why events take place. In a sense, theory is a plan that helps to realize some certain ideas in line with previously designed plans. At the same time, theory is a path that is taken as a basis to move and that is followed accordingly. Behaviorist Theories First of all, behaviour is reaction and movements displayed by any organism in a certain situation. The concept of behaviour is mostly used for movements that can be observed from outside. The behavioral learning theories focus on how behaviours are gained. Behaviorist theories accept the idea that learning takes place by establishing a connection between the stimulant and the behaviour and that changing behaviour is possible through reinforcement.2 Behaviorists handle learning as a mechanical process and gives priority to objectivity. According to the behaviorists, human beings are not good or bad from birth. The experiences and environment shape a LEARNING AND TEACHING : THEORIES, APPROACHES AND MODELS 3 person’s personality. According to them, human brain can be compared to a black box. It is neither possible nor necessary to know what is going on in this black box. What goes into (input) and what comes out of (output) this black box is important rather than what is happening in it. Outputs are objective, can be observed and measured. Inputs and outputs can be adjusted, arranged and controlled. The senses of a person are not important, what is important is their feature reflecting to outside.7 The pioneers of behaviorist theories are I. Pavlov, J.B. Watson, E.L. Thorndike, E.R. Guthrie and B.F. Skinner. Cognitive Theories Cognition is the sum total of processes carried out by human mind in order to understand the events and situations going on around.3 Cognition is a very comprehensive concept. Some of the activities related to mental processes that are included in the scope of cognition perceive the stimulants coming from outside, comparing these stimulants to previous information, forming new information, memorizing and remembering the gained information, evaluating the mental products in terms of logic and quality.4 Effective use of cognitive theories in the field of education has been increasing regularly in recent years. Cognitive theories focus on attention, perception, memory, forgetting and retrieval.5 Thus, the focus is on internal stimulants instead of external stimulants in learning.6 According to cognitive theories, mental processes are important rather than stimulant-reaction connection in learning. The purpose of cognitive theories is to explain how mental processes are organized and how they work.7 Some Approaches Apart from behaviorist and cognitive theories, there are a lot more learning theories that come out also influenced by these two theories. Some of these theories are constructivism, psychoanalytical approach and humanist approach. Constructivist Approach: Constructivism is a theory that explains how an individual understands and explains what she/he has learnt and that is about the nature of knowledge.8 Constructivism is a theory of learning that is about how people start to learn and about explaining the nature of knowledge. This theory claims that people can create new understandings or they can combine things, ideas, events and activities they already know and believe in a manner of mutual interaction.9 Knowledge is gained in line with the will of a person instead of imitation and repetition.10 Philosophical explanations of this theory are based on J.Bruner, W. James, J. Dewey, J. Piaget and L.S. Vygotsky. Psychoanalytical Approach: Sigmund Freud put this approach, also known as psychodynamic approach, forth. Some other pioneers of this approach besides Freud are Alfred Adler, Carl Jung. Unconscious and intrinsic motivators are the most basic concepts that are used to explain human behaviours. The most well known elements of this approach are hypnosis, structures of conscious (unconscious, preconscious, conscious); psychic elements of personality (id, ego, superego) and psychosexual developmental periods. Humanist Approach: Gestalt school and existentialism have influenced the leaders of this approach. The pioneers of this approach are Rogers, Maslow, Sartre, Charolette Bühler, Frankl and Binswagner. They have got ideas against behaviorist and psychoanalytical approaches. The way humanist approach handles human being differentiates this approach from other theoretical explanations. A person is a value in him/her, he/she should not be turned into a tool of a certain social or labour organization. A person is responsible for himself/herself, his/her behaviours, his/her identity that he/she will shape. It is up to that person to make life worth living and meaningful. None of the people, who are all mortal, will repeat their lives. Not past or future but present is important. Science is not a goal but a tool for people. More freedom should be ensured instead of controlling people’s behaviours.11 LEARNING AND TEACHING : THEORIES, APPROACHES AND MODELS 6 Learning: It can be defined as all types of changes that are permanent and that come out as a result of repetition and experiences of an individual. Basic Principles about Development There are some universal principles about development. Development of all people follows these principles: 1. Development occurs as a result of the interaction between heredity and environment: The hereditary features of a person influence his/her physical, cognitive and many other features. However, hereditary features take shape as a result of a person’s interaction with the environment and thus development occurs. 2. Development is continuous and occurs through certain phases: Development is a process that continues all throughout life from conception to death and it occurs through phases. Each phase becomes the basis of the next phase and each phase is fulfilled depending on the accumulations of the previous phases. 3. Development occurs by turns: During the critical periods of development, a field of development specific to that period comes to the forefront and accelerates while other development areas experience a lag. 4. Development follows a predictable line: Development can be guessed in advance, in other words, development follows a predictable line. This line is as stated below: a. Development occurs from the head to the foot: The development of an organism starts with the development of head and then it is completed by the development of body, stomach, legs and feet respectively. Apart from this, after the development of internal organs is completed, the development of body is completed. b. Development occurs from inside to outside: Development follows a direction from the center to outside. For example; first of all, internal organs develop and then skin develops. c. Development occurs from the general to the specific: Minor muscular movements of an organism develop after major muscular movements develop. After a baby can hold an object with its arms with the development of major muscular movements, it can hold an object with its hands and fingers with the development of major muscular movements. 5. Development occurs as a whole: Zones of development are not independent from each other they are in an interaction. A positive or negative feature in a developmental zone also influences another developmental zone. 6. There are some different people about development: Each person has got his/her own specific hereditary features, experiences, interaction with environment and personal qualities; because of this reason, the speed of development may also change from person to person.19 7. There are critical periods in development: An organism can be more sensitive to certain learning experiences and environmental factors at certain times. According to psychosexual and psychosocial approaches, those certain needs are not met at certain times cause the individual to stick to that period. Such individuals cannot display proficiency specific to the next developmental period and so they cannot develop sufficiently in terms of emotional and mental qualities. Developmental Periods and Tasks The term of developmental task was defined and studied by Havighurst (1900-1991). Developmental tasks are developmental responsibilities that come out at a certain period of life and that bring an individual to the following level of behaviour. If a person does not fulfill developmental tasks specific to a phase, he/she cannot fulfill developmental tasks of the following phases in time and healthily and there will also be some problems and defects in the general personality development because of this reason.20 Babyhood (0-2 years) Developmental tasks of babyhood are of vital and critical importance, because these developmental tasks constitute the core of almost all the following development processes. LEARNING AND TEACHING : THEORIES, APPROACHES AND MODELS 7 Child starts to talk towards the end of this period. Together with the start of talking, child starts to gain some qualities such as expressing himself/herself, perceiving what is said to him/her and establishing social relations depending on this. Likewise, the organism gains physical balance with the start of walking. Depending on this, infrastructure for a lot of psycho-motor activities are gained and developed. The most important developmental tasks of this period are:  Eating solid food  Learning how to walk  Establishing relations with the individuals around Developmental Tasks of Early Childhood – Period of Games (2-6 years) The most important developmental tasks of this period which is also called preschool period are:  Improving walking and speaking depending on maturation  Gaining self-care skills such as having meal, getting dressed on his/her own, washing face  Establishing eye hand coordination  Learning sexual differences, starting to gain sexual identity  Learning how to communicate with different age groups by means of taking parents as model and starting to be aware of his/her own feelings  Starting to learn social rules and roles Middle childhood (6-12 years) The most important developmental tasks of this period, which is also called as school period, are:  Establishing attitudes for himself/herself  Establishing groups with peers, enriching communication and interpersonal relations  Developing three basic skills about reading, writing and maths  Developing the appropriate role for his/her sex by means of finding a suitable model  Starting to develop a system of conscience and values  Personal independence, making decision alone, taking responsibility Developmental tasks of adolescence (12-18 years) The most important developmental tasks of this period are:  Accepting physical features, experiencing bodily and physical changes, making peace with the new bodily image  Being independent and different in the family, taking and applying decisions about himself/herself  Adopting social roles suitable for his/her sex  Establishing mature relationships with peers of the same and opposite sex  Getting prepared to choose a profession  Developing the system of values and moral  Wishing to take responsibility for and interest in social problems Developmental Tasks of Young Adulthood (18-30 years) The most important developmental tasks of this period are:  Choosing a suitable spouse  Learning how to live with wife/husband  Learning how to be a family and how to keep a house  Finding a job related to his/her profession  Fulfilling social responsibilities as a citizen  Joining a friends-group Developmental Tasks of Middle Adulthood (30-65 years) The most important developmental tasks of this period are:  Accepting that social responsibilities increase  Continuing life standard and income-generating financial conditions  Continuing relationship with children and aged generation, and helping and guiding them LEARNING AND TEACHING : THEORIES, APPROACHES AND MODELS 8  Spending spare time  Continuing life as a person integrated to the partner  Adapting to physiological changes and aging Developmental Tasks of Late Adulthood (65+ years) The most important developmental tasks of this period which is also called as the period of senility are:21  Understanding and adapting to the decreased cognitive and physical power  Adapting to retirement and decreased income  Accepting and adapting to the loss in the family  Adopting and implementing social roles appropriate for his/her own age  Arranging physical and social environments where he/she feels comfortable Main Factors That Affect Development It has been discussed whether heredity or environment is influential on human development. Both hereditary and environmental factors influence human development. Bodily development Cognitive development Moral Development Psycho-Sexual Development Psycho-Social Development Heredity The genes coming from his/her mother and father together with conception determine heredity of a person. Zygote that is composed of 46 chromosomes 23 of come from mother and 23 of which come from father comes into existence after mother’s egg unites with father’s sperm. Various combinations of genes determining the features that will pass to to-be-born baby by heredity are lined in the molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). All the hereditary features of the baby, the core of life are coded in DNA molecules. Genes coming from mother and father can be recessive or dominant; if genes are dominant, they will ensure that their features will pass to the baby whatever other parent’s feature is. It is necessary that both parents possess genes having the same features for the features of recessive genes to pass to the baby. Moreover, the features received from mother and father by heredity are different from the features observed in the individual. All the qualities received from mother and father by heredity are called genotype (colour of eyes and hair, atc.) while observed qualities are called phenotype (features such as intelligence that comes from birth are shaped by the influence of environment and can be conserved from outside). Genes received from mother and father, are the factors that determine the capacity of intelligence that an individual can possess. Studies that investigate the influence of heredity and environment on intelligence show that intelligence is determined by the common effect of hereditary and environmental factors. Environment Factors that arise in the prenatal birth, at the moment of birth and in the postnatal period are influential in shaping features that come with heredity. The illnesses that mother suffers, the drugs she takes, the polluted environment in which she lives, bad eating habits and having stress in the prenatal period influence the development of the fetus in a negative way. Apart from this, if the baby cannot take oxygen or has brain trauma at the moment of birth, these factors also affect the development of the baby badly. What is going on within the family, the attitude of the family, family relations, and family’s socio-economical-cultural condition also affect a person’s development in the postnatal period. DEVELOPMENT LEARNING AND TEACHING : THEORIES, APPROACHES AND MODELS 11 For example; that a human’s pupil shrinks in harsh light and grows in low light are inborn behaviours. Temporary behaviours are the ones that come out as a result of some factors such as alcohol, drug, narcotic drug, illness and that disappear after these factors disappear. For example, that a human talks because of high fever and alcohol can be as an example of this behaviour. Acquired behaviours are the ones that are not inborn and that are a product of learning. Behaviours that are a product of learning are generally acquired through a planned education or random domestication. Behaviours acquired through a planned education are terminal and qualified behaviours that tried to be gained or changed at schools or institutions by means of applying a plan. For example; telling the definition of learning, keeping the environment clean, keeping healthy, playing a musical instrument are behaviours acquired through a planned education. Behaviours acquired through random domestication are behaviours acquired spontaneously without implementing a certain plan.28 For example; these are the behaviours acquired as a result of interaction at a certain level at school, at home, at the cinema. Acquired behaviours are expected to be terminal. However, acquired behaviours may not be terminal all the time. Behaviours that are not terminal can be acquired even through a planned education. Sense A person generally processes a piece of information at two levels, which are sense and perception. Sense is a general concept that shows the sensitivity of organism to internal and external stimulant events. For example; experiences such as brightness of light, warmth of tea, the pain of pinprick are included in sense. We can say that the raw material of experience is sense. However, we should also keep in mind that experience is not just composed of a series of sense. We always process our senses by means of interpreting them in our daily lives. For example; we interpret series of tones as melody, a big and red cubic shape as a red house, cold and wet sense as rain. Perception The process of interpreting and making senses meaningful is called perception. People perceive the world with their sense organs. So, there are perceptions related to all of the senses as visual perception or audio perception. In general, visual perception is the most dominant one in a human life. Objects come to mind when visual perceptions are in question. Perception of objects is partly based on learning. It is possible for a person to name objects and define their functions by learning. However, the basic tendency to organize stimuli into objects is the result of an inborn feature of human’s organs and nerve system as well as learning. This natural ability including the perception of objects is called organizer tendencies. The most important organizer tendencies are related to separation of shape and ground, grouping and completing. LEARNING AND TEACHING : THEORIES, APPROACHES AND MODELS 12 Attention One of the most leading features of perception is that it is selective. Sense organs of a person meet a lot of stimuli at a certain time. However, we perceive just a few of these stimuli more specifically in this period of time. In other words, people pay attention to just a few of events happening at a certain time. Then, we can say that attention plays an important role in terms of what people perceive. Attention is defined as focusing on some aspects of an experience at a certain time while ignoring the others. Attention has got a focus and a boundary area. Events are perceived specifically at the focus of attention. On the other hand, events are perceived to a lesser degree in the boundary area of attention. For example; you are watching a national football match on TV. While watching the match, you focus on the Turkish footballer that is taking the ball to the net of the opposing team. There may also be a lot of other footballers that try to prevent the Turkish footballer to score a goal. The footballers that try to prevent a goal are within the boundary area of your attention. Factors That Affect Learning We can divide the factors that affect learning into three groups. These are factors about learner, learning methods and to-be-learnt matter. There are also other factors that affect learning while they can be divided into different groups. The major ones of them are teacher and the learning or teaching environments. However, teacher and the learning or teaching environment do not affect learning directly. So, we can look at the factors that affect learning under three groups, which are about learner, learning methods and to-be-learnt matter. Factors About Learner The factors related to the learner comprise the necessary qualities of a person needed to realize learning. These qualities of a person are species-specific readiness, maturation, level of general motivation and anxiety, transferring previous information, motivation and attention.35 Species-specific readiness: Human can learn to the extent his/her genetic structure allows. In other words, a person is prepared to do some actions while not to do some other actions. For example; a person or a dog cannot learn how to fly, because both people and dogs do not have the necessary structure and qualities to fly. Species-specific readiness means that a person has got the necessary biological qualities to acquire the expected behaviours. A person can learn just what his/her own species can learn. Maturation: In general, maturation refers to biological development that takes place under the influence of heredity. The most important signal of a person’s development and learning is maturation. Maturation is the product of the internal strengths that affect both the structure and functions of a person. A person should be mature at a certain level to realize learning. We can say that there are two kinds of maturation. One of them is maturation in terms of age and the other is maturation in terms of intelligence. A person should be at a certain age to realize a good learning. In other words, a person should have a maturation of a certain age in order to learn. For example; a person should be about 9 months old to learn how to walk and about 2 years old to learn how to speak. Some people may not learn even if they reach the maturation of a certain age necessary for learning since they may not reach the necessary maturation in terms of mental processes. Maturation in terms of intelligence is generally handled together with the term of intelligence. Some psychologists accept intelligence as the criteria for learning ability. LEARNING AND TEACHING : THEORIES, APPROACHES AND MODELS 13 For example; children’s speed in learning how to read is about intelligence. Level of general motivation and anxiety: A person should be motivated at a certain level to learn. The level of motivation means the degree of a person’s accepting the stimuli coming from outside. The level of general motivation is very important in learning situations that necessitate complex mental processes. For example; we can say that a student who studies on bed has got a low level of motivation since the students tends to relax about studying. We can say that a very high level of motivation also prevents learning. For example; a highly motivated student can panic and so cannot learn. Both low and high levels of motivation make learning difficult. The level of motivation should be at a medium level for a good learning. Anxiety is also important in learning just like the level of motivation. The effect of anxiety, which means a mild fear possessed without knowing what the problem is, is similar to the level of general motivation. A very high or low level of anxiety makes it difficult to learn. Although the effect of anxiety on learning depends on people, we can say that a medium level of anxiety is necessary for a good learning. Past experiences: The preliminary information to be learnt also plays an important role in a person’s learning. Especially adults do not start learning at a zero level since adults have a lot of past experiences in and out of school. They generally build each new learning on their previous knowledge.36 This phenomenon which is called passing or transferring learning may have positive or negative effects. For example; acquiring the skill of four operations in math can make it easier to learn how to solve problem or to do shopping in daily life. Learning the word order of subject, verb, and object in Turkish can make it more difficult to learn the word order of subject, verb, and object in English.37 Motivation: In general, motivation means the impetus that starts, directs and continues the action of a person. Motivation makes learning easier by means of effects such as lengthening the duration of participation in a certain activity, directing behaviours towards a certain purpose. So, a person should be motivated to learn more easily. Motivation is the state of gaining power to achieve certain goals. In other words, motivation is the state of gaining strength that has physiological, cognitive and affective dimensions in a person and that directs a person to do certain activities and that gives energy to a person. We can say that motivation is an important factor that makes learning easier. For example; there has been a study about students who have same levels of intelligence but different levels of success. In this study, it has come out that those students who have higher levels of success also have got a higher level of motivation than those who have lower level of motivation. Attention: Attention plays an important role in a person’s learning. We can say that learning process starts with the process of attention. Although there are a lot of stimuli around us, we just learn the information to which we pay attention. We cannot process a piece of information without being aware of or perceiving that information. The level of motivation can affect attention. A high level of motivation can increase attention. Factors About Learning Methods Another group of factors that affect learning are learning methods. The major factors about learning methods are organizing the time and duration of learning, the structure of the subject to be learnt, participation and feedback.38 LEARNING AND TEACHING : THEORIES, APPROACHES AND MODELS 16  According to cognitive theories, mental processes are more important than the connection of stimulus-reaction in learning.  There are a lot more learning approaches that come out also by the influence of behaviorist and cognitive theories. Some of them are constructivism, psychoanalytical and humanist approaches.  There are some basic concepts about development. These are human, development, developing, developmental period, critical developmental period, phase, effect of time, growth, maturation, readiness, heredity, age, experience and learning.  Each person’s development takes place with certain principles.  Development takes place as a result of heredity and environment.  Development is continuous and takes place through certain steps.  Development takes place alternately.  Development follows a predictable line.  Development takes place as a whole.  There are individual differences about development.  There are some critical periods in development.  There are some periods in a human’s development.  Babyhood comprises 0-2 years.  Early childhood – period of games comprises 2-6 years.  Middle childhood comprises 6-12 years.  Adolescence comprises 12-18 years.  Young adulthood comprises 18-30 years.  Middle adulthood comprises 30-65 years.  Late adulthood comprises over than 65 years.  There are both genetic and environmental factors in a person’s development.  A change in behaviour takes place by learning. This change doesn’t have to be positive; it may be positive (reading and writing) or negative (smoking and drinking alcohol).  Learning comes out as a result of a person’s own experiences, activities or reactions (repetition or experience).  All changes of behaviour cannot be accepted as learning.  Behaviour should be displayed through a certain period of time to be accepted as learning (it should have continuity).  The change of behaviour should not come out as a result of factors such as illness, drug, tiredness, etc. Behaviours that are observed under the influence of a temporary factor are not learnt (for example, a drunken person’s specific actions).  Instinctive behaviours and reflexes are not evaluated as the product of learning.  If learning takes place, it is possible to transfer the learnt behaviour to be used in other situations.  It is not possible to observe learning itself directly. The observable quality is the performance.  If an organism reacts to a certain stimulus differently from the previous encounter, this is learning.  Learning is the success of a person. A person learns the necessities of life, whether they are right or wrong, through success. During the period of learning, a person learns by means of attending different establishments from birth to death on one side while he/she learns in the environment where she/he lives on the other side. What a person learns in the environment she/he lives in is as important as what she/he lives in the establishments.  We can group the factors that affect learning under three headings. These are factors about learner, learning methods and the subject to be learnt. There are also some other factors that affect learning. The major ones of them are teacher and the environment of learning or teaching. However, teacher and the environment of learning or teaching do not affect learning directly. 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