One-Word Substitution List: Animals, Research, Collections, Fear, Government, and More, Lecture notes of English Literature

Download One-Word Substitution List: Animals, Research, Collections, Fear, Government, and More and more Lecture notes English Literature in PDF only on Docsity! 1 Lecture Notes on Communicative English Government Polytechnic Nayagarh Odagaon, Nayagarh 752081 2 Lecture Notes on Communicative English Prepared & Developed by: Dr.Shashibhusan Nayak Lecturer in English G.P.Nayagarh This material is meant to be used by students of Diploma Course of G.P.Nayagrah, Odisha, as downloadable from G.P.Nayagrah website free of cost. This material is not to be treated as text book, but be treated as reference material. 5 Unit 1: Reading Comprehension Reading involves a number of sub-skills. 1. Global Comprehension In reading a text for meaning, it is desirable to go from the ‘whole’ to the ‘parts’, and not vice versa, as unskilled readers tend to do. A poor reader will pick up information from the text in small bits and pieces, as he/she reads from one word or one sentence to the next, and try to assemble the bits together. An efficient reader, on the other hand, will first try to form an over all ‘picture’ of the entire text. ‘Global Comprehension’, or the ability to get ‘over-all’ meaning from a text, requires the sub-skill of skimming i.e. reading through the text at high speed in order to identify and pick up the main idea or ideas in the text while ‘filtering out’ the unnecessary details. 2. Understanding the Plan of the Text A good reader usually reads a text more than once in order to understand it adequately. The first reading is done at speed, with the intention of making a ‘general survey’ of the text. Then the reader returns to the text as many times as needed in order to fill in the details. 6 Efficient readers are able to form a ‘plan’ of the text that is being read, which helps them to recover meaning from it. Most texts – unless they are badly written – possess unity of thought. There is generally one central idea or ‘theme’ in the text, which is most prominent. There may be other ideas as well, but they are usually introduced in order to provide support for the main idea. The reader’s mental plan helps him/her to ‘navigate’ through the text confidently instead of groping about blindly. 3. Making Predictions and Informed Guesses An unskilled reader plods through a text laboriously, trying to get the meaning of every word. The skilled reader, after reading a few sentences, paragraphs or pages, is able to form a fairly accurate picture of what the author is trying to say, and is able to ‘hop’ and ‘skip’ through the text, omitting quite substantial portions of it without missing important information. Most writers have a tendency to repeat themselves in irder to ensure that their readers do not miss the significance of what they are saying; good readers are aware of this and know that portions of the text can be safely omitted. Making reliable predictions about what is likely to be found in the text is an important sub-skill of reading. 4. Local Comprehension After reading through the text quickly to form an overall impression, one should focus on the details of the information provided by the writer, which will generally be located in different parts of the text. A reader begins by gathering the ‘facts’ presented by the author in the text. The term ‘factual comprehension’ refers to the ability to absorb and retrieve factual information contained in the text – i.e., information which has been explicitly stated by the writer and is directly available in the text. Factual comprehension must come before deeper and more thorough understanding of the text; unless one understands the ‘plain sense’ of the text, one cannot reach the other levels of comprehension. Inferential comprehension refers to the reader’s ability to ‘read between the lines’. The reader has to understand not just what the writer has said but also what he/she might have said but has chosen to leave unsaid. This is done on the basis of clues provided in the text as well as the reader’s own 7 background knowledge. Evaluative comprehension requires the reader to make a considered judgment on the truth and the value of what the writer is trying to say, and how far he/she has succeeded in saying it. This is a more sophisticated skill than the two previously referred to since the author has to respond to the text more critically to identify, among other things, the writer’s bias, force and accuracy of argument and the effectiveness of what he/she is trying to say. 5. Guessing the meanings of Unfamiliar Words Good readers tackle unknown words in a text by trying to guess their meanings from the context. It is not possible to look up the meanings of all unknown words in the dictionary. If the reader attempts to do that the flow of reading is interrupted. However, this is possible only when the text does not have too many difficult words. 6. Skimming an Scanning 'Skimming' a text means going through it quickly to get an overall idea of the content. We are not interested in details or any specific information while skimming. 'Scanning' on the other hand , involves searching the text for specific piece of information in which the reader is interested. 7. Understanding Discourse Markers Discourse markers are ‘signposts’ provided by the writer. These are used in a text to indicate sequence of ideas and signal the writer’s point of view. Understanding the writer’s use of discourse markers is an important sub-skill of reading. These signposts are helpful because they indicate to the reader the relationship between two parts of the text. 8. Understanding the Organization of a Text Every text contains a number of different ideas, which are presented in different parts of the text. The manner in which different ideas are related to each other in a text is referred to as the structure or organization of a text. 10 • mother / mom • present / gift • sunrise / dawn Verbs • answer / reply • beat / defeat • behave / act • begin / start • close / shut • leave / exit • provide / supply • select / choose • shout / yell • speak / talk Adjectives • big / large • complete / total • correct / right • crazy / mad • foolish / silly • happy / glad • hard / difficult • ill / sick • last / final • near / close • sad / unhappy • stable / steady Adverbs • abroad / overseas • almost / nearly • badly / poorly • fast / quickly • intentionally / on purpose • out / outside • rarely / seldom • sometimes / occasionally • surely / for sure • very / highly / extremely 11 Prepositions • above / over • about / regarding / concerning • against / versus • below / beneath / under • by / via • despite / in spite of • in / into • off / away • until / till • with / including Conjunctions • and / plus • because / since • but / yet • if / provided • once / as soon as Interjections • hello / hi • gee / gosh • goodness / goodness me / my goodness • no / nope • oh Lord / good Lord • thanks / thank you • whoopee / yahoo / hooray • yes / yeah Synonyms are not necessarily the same! You see, they can be very similar, but they do not necessarily mean the same. Here is a common example. the following words are all synonyms. Their general meaning is "pleasant to look at." 12 There are however important nuances. Look at the illustrations, read the definitions and see for yourself. Pretty, beautiful, handsome... What's the difference? Pretty Beautiful Handsome Pretty = delicate and pleasant to look at. Beautiful = (of a woman or girl)extremely pleasant to look at. Handsome = (of a man) pleasant to look at. Lovely Ravishing Good-looking Lovely = (of someone that makes you have a strong feeling for them) graceful and very pleasant to look at. Ravishing = very beautiful. Good-looking = physically pleasant to look at. Cute Adorable Gorgeous Cute = (of someone young or something small) charming and pleasant to look at. Adorable = very pleasant to look at and very easy to love. Gorgeous = impressive and extremely pleasant to look at. Here is another example to illustrate this point: "To ask" means to say or write what you wish to happen. "To request" means to say or write what you wish to happen, but it has a formal use. 15 Adverbs • always / never • angrily / happily • fast / slowly • here / there • inside / outside • likely / unlikely • near / far • partly / fully • seemingly / actually • yesterday / tomorrow Prepositions • above / below • against / for • before / after • in / out • like / unlike • on / off • plus / minus • to / from • towards / away • with / without Conjunctions • and / or • therefore / nevertheless Interjections • bravo / boo • hello / goodbye • holy cow / duh • phew / oops • thanks / no thanks • yes / no • yippee / oh my 16 Homonyms Homonyms are two words that are spelled the same and sound the same but have different meanings. ... Therefore, a homonym is a word that has the same name as another word, meaning that the two words look and sound exactly alike. In English language, there are many words that spell the same but differ in meaning as per their usage. These are also called homographs. Based on their usage and functions, words are categorized into eight parts of speech. These words change their meaning in accordance to their usage. However the change in the meaning of the word occurs only when the word is used as a noun, adjective, verb and adverb. To understand this better, let us look at some examples: CLEAN 1. The cottage needs a good clean. 2. He clean forgot about dropping the letters in the post box. 3. The entertainment was good clean fun for the whole family. 4. He cleaned up his act and came off drugs. In the above example, we have used the word clean and used it in 4 different sentences, each signifying a different meaning, along with its usage as different parts of speech. Sentence A - The cottage needs a good clean. The word clean in this sentence means the act or an instance of cleaning. Since this is an act, hence it is a noun. Sentence B - He clean forgot about dropping the letters in the post box. The meaning of the word clean in this sentence is completely, and since it is modifying the word forgot which a verb (action word) is, it is an adverb. Sentence C - The entertainment was good clean fun for the whole family. In this case, the meaning of the word clean is fit for everyone, nothing 17 obscene. The word in this case is modifying fun, which is a noun; hence the word here is an adjective. Sentence D - He cleaned up his act and came off drugs. In this case the word cleans means to rid of undesirable features. Clean has been used to denote an action, and hence in this case it is a verb. LIGHT 1. The new lamp had good light for reading. 2. Magnesium is a light metal. 3. Rahul likes to travel light. 4. The choice lighted on me. Sentence A - The new lamp had good light for reading. In this the word light is being is used to mean a particular quality or type of light. And also it has been used as a noun. Sentence B - Magnesium is a light metal. In this the word is used to mean having relatively low density, also since it is used to describe the word metal which is a noun, it is an adjective. Sentence C - Rahul likes to travel light. In this, the word light means little equipment, baggage, etc. Sentence D - the choice lighted on me. In this the word light is used to denote an action thus it is verb and it means to strike or fall on. Some of the similar kinds of words are: LOVE We love you. (Here, love is a verb as it is showing the action in terms of expressing an emotion) Love is blind. (Here, Love is a noun as it is a name of an emotion) 20 A person who believes in or tries to bring about a state of lawlessness Anarchist A person who has changed his faith Apostate One who does not believe in the existence of God Atheist A person appointed by two parties to solve a dispute Arbitrator One who leads an austere life Ascetic One who does a thing for pleasure and not as a profession Amateur One who can either hand with ease Ambidextrous An unconventional style of living Bohemian One who is bad in spellings Cacographer One who feeds on human flesh Cannibal A person who is blindly devoted to an idea/ A person displaying aggressive or exaggerated patriotism Chauvinist A critical judge of any art and craft Connoisseur 21 One who is recovering health after illness Convalescent A girl/woman who flirts with man Coquette A person who regards the whole world as his country Cosmopolitan One who is a centre of attraction Cynosure One who sneers at the beliefs of others Cynic A leader or orator who espoused the cause of the common people Demagogue A person having a sophisticated charm Debonair A leader who sways his followers by his oratory Demagogue A dabbler (not serious) in art, science and literature Dilettante One who is for pleasure of eating and drinking Epicure One who often talks of his achievements Egotist Someone who leaves one country to settle in another Emigrant A man who is womanish in his habits Effeminate 22 One hard to please (very selective in his habits) Fastidious One who runs away from justice Fugitive One who is filled with excessive enthusiasm in religious matters Fanatic One who believes in fate Fatalist A lover of good food Gourmand Conferred as an honour Honorary A person who acts against religion Heretic A person of intellectual or erudite tastes Highbrow A person who is controlled by wife Henpeck One who shows sustained enthusiastic action with unflagging vitality Indefatigable Someone who attacks cherished ideas or traditional institutions Iconoclast One who does not express himself freely Introvert Who behaves without moral principles Immoral 25 A group of people, typically with vehicles or animals travelling together Caravan A closed political meeting Caucus An exclusive circle of people with a common purpose Clique A group of followers hired to applaud at a performance Claque A series of stars Constellation A funeral procession Cortege A group of worshippers Congregation A herd or flock of animals being driven in a body Drove A small fleet of ships or boats Flotilla A small growth of trees without underbrush Grove A community of people smaller than a village Hamlet A group of cattle or sheep or other domestic mammals Herd 26 One Word Substitutes List for “Research/ Profession” A large group of people Horde A temporary police force Posse A large number of fish swimming together Shoal A strong and fast-moving stream of water or other liquid Torrent PHRASE ONE WORD The medieval forerunner of chemistry Alchemy A person who presents a radio/television programme Anchor A person who is trained to travel in a spacecraft Astronaut The scientific study of the physiology, structure, genetics, ecology, distribution, classification, and economic importance of plants Botany A person who draws or produces maps Cartographer 27 A person who writes beautiful writing Calligrapher A person employed to drive a private or hired car Chauffeur A person who introduces the performers or contestants in a variety show Compere A keeper or custodian of a museum or other collection Curator The branch of biology concerned with cyclical physiological phenomena Chronobiology A secret or disguised way of writing Cypher The study of statistics Demography The use of the fingers and hands to communicate and convey ideas Dactylology A person who sells and arranges cut flowers Florist A line of descent traced continuously from an ancestor Genealogy The therapeutic use of sunlight Heliotherapy The art or practice of garden cultivation and management Horticulture 30 A large burial ground, especially one not in a churchyard Cemetery A room in a public building where outdoor clothes or luggage may be left Cloakroom A place where a dead person's body is cremated Crematorium a Christian community of nuns living together under monastic vows Convent Nursery where babies and young children are cared for during the working day Creche A stoppered glass container into which wine or spirit is decanted Decanter A large bedroom for a number of people in a school or institution Dormitory The nest of a squirrel, typically in the form of a mass of twigs in a tree Drey A room or building equipped for gymnastics, games, and other physical exercise Gymnasium A storehouse for threshed grain Granary A large building with an extensive floor area, typically for housing aircraft. Hangar 31 A box or cage, typically with a wire mesh front, for keeping rabbits or other small domesticated animals Hutch A place in a large institution for the care of those who are ill Infirmary A small shelter for a dog Kennel A place where wild animal live Lair A place where coins, medals, or tokens are made Mint A collection of wild animals kept in captivity for exhibition Menagerie A building or buildings occupied by a community of monks living under religious vows Monastery A place where bodies are kept for identification Morgue A piece of enclosed land planted with fruit trees Orchard A large natural or artificial lake used as a source of water supply Reservoir A small kitchen or room at the back of a house used for washing dishes and another dirty household work Scullery A close-fitting cover for the blade of a knife or sword Sheath 32 One Word Substitution PDF for “Government/ Systems” A room or building for sick children in a boarding school Sanatorium A place where animal hides are tanned Tannery A large, tall cupboard in which clothes may be hung or stored Wardrobe PHRASE ONE WORD A state of disorder due to absence or non-recognition of authority or other controlling systems Anarchy A form of government in which power is held by the nobility Aristocracy A system of government by one person with absolute power Autocracy A self-governing country or region Autonomy A system of government in which most of the important decisions are taken by state officials rather than by elected representatives Bureaucracy A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state, typically through elected representatives Democracy 35 Fear of time Chronophobia Fear of dogs Cynophobia An extreme or irrational fear of confined places Claustrophobia A delusion of being possessed by evil spirits Demonomania An abnormal and persistent fear of drinking alcohol Dipsophobia An abnormal and persistent fear of work or finding employment Ergophobia Fear of getting married, being in a relationship, or commitment Gamophobia Physical or psychological fear of sexual relations or sexual intercourse Genophobia Fear of old age Geraphobia Fear of knowledge Gnosiophobia Fear of women Gynaephobia Fear of writing or handwriting Graphophobia 36 All One Word Substitution for “Murder/ Death” An irrational and intense fear of travel Hodophobia An excessive fear or aversion to obtaining pleasure Hedonophobia An obsessive fear of words Logophobia An extreme fear of wind or drafts Menemophobia An extreme or irrational fear of the night or of darkness Nyctophobia Fear of death Thanatophobia Extreme superstition regarding the number thirteen Triskaidekapho PHRASE ONE WORD A solemn procession, especially for a funeral Cortege A poem of serious reflection, typically a lament for the dead Elegy 37 A phrase or form of words written in memory of a person who has died Epitaph Killing of one's son or daughter Filicide Destruction or abortion of a fetus Foeticide Killing of one's brother or sister Fratricide Killing of a large group of people Genocide Killing of one person by another Homicide Killing of infants Infanticide Burial of a corpse in a grave or tomb Interment Killing of one's mother Matricide A room or building in which dead bodies are kept Mortuary A news article that reports the recent death of a person Obituary Killing of a parent or other near relative Parricide 40 List of One Word Substitution for Competitive Exam Related to “Generic Terms” The sound of Ducks Quack The sound of Parrots Screech The sound of Rats Squeak The sound of Birds Twitter The sound of Elephants Trumpet The sound of Mosquitoes Whine PHRASE ONE WORD An act of abdicating or renouncing the throne Abdication An annual calendar containing important dates and statistical information such as astronomical data and tide tables Almanac 41 A cold-blooded vertebrate animal that is born in water and breathes with gills Amphibian A story, poem, or picture that can be interpreted to reveal a hidden meaning, typically a moral or political one Allegory A statement or proposition on which an abstractly defined structure is based Axiom A nation or person engaged in war or conflict, as recognized by international law Belligerent An examination of tissue removed from a living body to discover the presence, cause, or extent of a disease Biopsy The action or offence of speaking sacrilegiously about God or sacred things; profane talk Blasphemy The arrangement of events or dates in the order of their occurrence Chronology A vigorous campaign for political, social, or religious change Crusade Lasting for a very short time Ephemeral Spoken or done without preparation Extempore Release someone from a duty or obligation Exonerate 42 Fond of company Gregarious Making marks that cannot be removed Indelible Incapable of making mistakes or being wrong Infallible Certain to happen Inevitable A sentimental longing or wistful affection for a period in the past Nostalgia A solution or remedy for all difficulties or diseases Panacea A doctrine which identifies God with the universe Pantheism Excessively concerned with minor details or rules Pedantic The practice of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's own Plagiarism Safe to drink Potable The emblems or insignia of royalty Regalia Violation or misuse of what is regarded as sacred Sacrilege 45 school > schools friend > friends We add –es to nouns ending in –s, –ch, –sh, –ss, –x and –o: class > classes watch > watches gas > gases wish > wishes box > boxes potato > potatoes When a noun ends in a consonant and –y, we make the plural with –ies: lady > ladies country > countries 46 party > parties If a noun ends in a vowel and –y, we simply add –s: boy > boys day > days play > plays Some common nouns have irregular plurals: man > men woman > women child > children person > people foot > feet Plural count nouns do not have a general determiner when they refer to people or things in general: 47 Computers are very expensive. Do you sell old books? But they may have a specific determiner: Those computers are very expensive. The books in that shop are very expensive. Her sisters live there. or a quantifier: some new books a few teachers lots of good ideas or a numeral: two new books three wishes Uncountable nouns Some nouns in English are uncountable nouns. We do not use uncountable nouns in the plural and we do not use them with the indefinite article a/an: We ate a lot of food. (NOT foods) We bought some new furniture. (NOT furnitures) That's useful information. (NOT a useful information) We can use some quantifiers with uncountable nouns: He gave me some useful advice. They gave us a lot of information. Uncountable nouns often refer to: Substances: food, water, wine, salt, bread, iron Human feelings or qualities: anger, cruelty, happiness, honesty, pride Activities: help, sleep, travel, work Abstract ideas: beauty, death, fun, life Common uncountable nouns 50 A man came this morning and left a parcel. He was wearing a big coat and a cap. We use no determiner with plural nouns and uncountable nouns: Girls normally do better in school than boys. (plural nouns) Milk is very good for you. (uncount noun) Health and education are very important. (uncountable nouns) We use the general determiner any with a singular noun or an uncountable noun when we are talking about all of those people or things: It's very easy. Any child can do it. = All children can do it. With a full licence you are allowed to drive any car. = all cars I like bananas, oranges, apples – any fruit. = all kinds of fruit (Note that any is also used as a quantifier in negative and interrogative sentences.) We use the general determiner another to talk about an additional person or thing: Would you like another glass of wine? The plural form of another is other: I spoke to John, Helen and a few other friends. The indefinite article: 'a' and 'an' We use the indefinite article, a/an, with singular nouns when the listener/reader does not know exactly which one we are referring to: Police are searching for a 14-year-old girl. We also use it to show that the person or thing is one of a group: She is a pupil at London Road School. Police have been looking for a 14-year-old girl who has been missing since Friday. Jenny Brown is a pupil at London Road School. She is 1.6 metres tall, with short, blonde hair. When she left home, she was wearing a blue jacket, a blue and white blouse, dark blue jeans and blue shoes. Anyone who has information should contact the local police on 0800 349 781. 51 We do not use an indefinite article with plural nouns or uncountable nouns: She was wearing blue shoes. (plural noun) She has short, blonde hair. (uncountable noun) We use a before a consonant sound: a banana (starts with /b/) a university (starts with /j/) and an before a vowel sound: an orange (starts with /o/) an hour (starts with /au/) Note that the choice of a or an depends on sound, not spelling. The definite article: 'the' The definite article the is the most frequent word in English. We use the definite article in front of a noun when we believe the listener/reader knows exactly what we are referring to: • because there is only one: The Pope is visiting Russia. The moon is very bright tonight. Who is the president of France? This is why we use the definite article with a superlative adjective: He is the tallest boy in the class. It is the oldest building in the town. • because there is only one in that context: We live in a small house next to the church. (= the church in our village) Dad, can I borrow the car? (= the car that belongs to our family) When we stayed at my grandmother’s house, we went to the beach every day. (= the beach near my grandmother’s house) Look at the boy over there. (= the boy I am pointing at) 52 • because we have already mentioned it: A young man got a nasty shock when he tried to rob a jewellery shop in Richmond. The man used a heavy hammer to smash the windows in the shop. We also use the definite article: • to say something about all the things referred to by a noun: The wolf is not really a dangerous animal. (= Wolves are not really dangerous animals.) The kangaroo is found only in Australia. (= Kangaroos are found only in Australia.) The heart pumps blood around the body. (= Hearts pump blood around bodies.) We use the definite article in this way to talk about musical instruments: Joe plays the piano really well. She is learning the guitar. • to refer to a system or service: How long does it take on the train? I heard it on the radio. You should tell the police. MODALS Secondary auxiliaries are also called modals. They cannot be used independently like primary auxiliaries. They are 13(thirteen) in numbers: will, would, shall, should, may, might, can, could, must, need, used to, ought to, dare. In this chapter we will discuss them under different points with reference to their logical meaning. i. Will, Would, Shall (Expressing requests, offers, willingness and suggestions) Use: (a) Expressing Requests. Will/ Would you please open the door? Would you mind lending me your book, please? 55 Used to is used to denote simple past only. We used to live in Cuttack during my father’s service period. There used to be a house near the temple a couple of years back. vi. Dare: Auxiliary dare is used in sense of making a challenging effort. It does not take an _s in third person singular number. How dare you talk to me in my face? He daren’t go outside in the dark. ACTIVITY SET Fill-in the blanks with appropriate modals. 1. They stop making nuisance. (shouldn’t, wouldn’t) 2. The old man is honest. He pay you back. (could, will) 3. I do this for you? (shall, will) 4. We obey our parents. (should, ought to) 5. Fish swim. (can, could) 6. The sky is stormy. It rain to night. (may, might) 7. I be back by 7 pm. (will, Would) 8. I go to the field, sir? (can, may) 9. It stopped raining. You carry an umbrella. (must, need(- ve)) 56 Time and Tenses: TENSE Time and Tenses are not identical to each other. We can divide time into three different phases: Past, Present and Future. But when we express time in relation to the action done or going to be done we call it tense. Tense is of two types: Past and Present. Future is time not a tense. In the simplest way, if we put, tense is the form of the verb which denotes an action, with its degree of completeness in relation to time period. Each tense has got four different forms showing degree of completeness of action. They are simple, progressive, perfect and perfect progressive. Here we will discuss them technically. Tense Form Example showing verb form Present Tense Simple Present He writes stories. Present Progressive He is writing a story. Present Perfect He has written a story. Present Perfect Progressive He has been writing a story since yesterday. Past Tense Simple Past He wrote stories. Past Progressive He was writing stories. Past Perfect He had written a story. Past Perfect Progressive He had been writing stories. Use: (A) Simple Present Tense form: 1. It denotes a habitual action. 57 It rains a lot in Andaman. I never eat outside. 2. It denotes the present state. We live in Bhubaneswar. My daughter loves milk-cakes. 3. It expresses universal and scientific truths. The sun sets in the west. Oil floats on water. (B) Simple Past Tense form: 1. It indicates an already completed action. She cooked. They played hockey. 2. It denotes a past habit. I took morning walk daily two years back. Nehru loved roses. (C) Present Progressive Tense form: 1. It denotes an action that continues at the time of speaking about it. My daughter is watching POGO. It is raining now. 2. It denotes an action that is running simultaneously with another action in present progressive form. While he is singing, his sister is dancing. (D) Past Progressive Tense form: 1. It denotes an action that is continued in past while speaking about it. She was reading a poem. 2. It denotes an action that is continued while another action took place in between the action that happens during the course of continuous action remains in simple past tense form. 60 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE The voice of a verb shows whether the Subject is active or passive. The verb is active if the subject performs an action, passive if the subject receives an action; as Subject Verb Object The boy writes a letter. A letter is written by the boy. In the first sentence the subject boy acts; in the second sentence the subject a letter receives the action. The object a letter of the active verb becomes the subject a letter of the passive verb. Since Transitive verbs have objects, only transitive verbs have passive voice. The passive voice of the verb is made by adding its particle to some form of the verb be. Table showing passive voice 61 Tense How to form passive Sentence 1. Simple present Is/am/are + Past Particle Was/were + Past Particle Shall be/will + be + Past Particle Is / am/are + being + Past Particle Was/were + being + Past Particle Have/has + being + Past Particle Had + been + Past Particle Shall/will have + been + Past Particle I am helped. He is helped. 2. Simple past 3. Simple future I was helped. We were helped. I shall be helped. 4. Present continuous 5. Past continuous He will be helped. I am being helped. He is being helped. I was being helped. 6. Present perfect We were being helped. I have been helped. 7. Past perfect 8. Future perfect He has been helped. I had been helped. I shall have been helped. He will have been helped. Note: the active voice is more direct and more forceful than the passive. But there are legitimate uses for the passive; as, (a) To eliminate mention of the agent: He was found sealing. Food was distributed among the famine-stricken. (b) To emphasize the recipient of an action: Raju’s house was burgled last night. The prime minister was given a warm welcome. From active into passive When a sentence is turned from active voice into passive voice, the following changes are made: 1. The object in the active voice becomes the subject in the passive voice. 2. The subject in the active voice becomes the object in the passive voice. 3. The passive voice of the verb is made by adding its past particle to some form of the verb be (is, am, are, was, were, been, being). 62 I. Simple present tense Active : He helps me Passive : I am helped by him. Active : We see an aeroplane. Passive : An aeroplane is seen by us. Active : She sings a song. Passive : A sung is song by her. II. Simple past tense Active : We killed a cobra. Passive: A cobra was killed by us. Active : The fisherman caught a fish. Passive: A fish was caught by the fisherman. Active : You made many mistakes. Passive : Many mistakes were made by you. 65 Active : You must not do it. Passive : It must not be done by you. IX. Imperative sentences In imperative sentences, ‘let be’ is used to change the voice, if the sentence is to remain imperative; otherwise, ‘should be’ can also be used; as Active : Read this story. Passive : Let this story be read. Or This story should be read. Active : Open the window. Passive : Let the window be opened. Or The window should be opened. Active : Don’t pick flowers. Passive : Let flowers not be picked. Or Flowers should not be picked. 66 Note: In case of transitive verbs, the imperative sentence is changed into passive voice like this: Active : Please sit down. Passive : You are requested to sit down. Active : Stand up. Passive : You are ordered to stand up. Active : Work hard. You are advised to work Passive : hard. X. Typical sentences Active : It is time to say our prayers. Passive : It is time for our prayers to be said. Active : It is time to take exercise. Passive : It is time for exercise to be taken. Active : The jug contains milk. Passive : Milk is contained in the jug. Active : You have to do it. Passive : It has to be done by you. Active : The room needs sweeping. Passive : The room needs to be swept. Honey tastes sweet. Honey is sweet when tasted. Active : Passive : 67 CONCORD (Subject-Verb agreement) When the verb agrees with the subject in number and person, it is known as subject-verb agreement or concord. In different situation subject is considered as singular or plural. In this chapter we will discuss different conditions responsible for designating the subject either to be singular or plural and the verb following it. 1. When two singular subjects are joined by ‘and’ and denote a single unit of meaning, together they are considered to be singular and the verb that follows becomes singular. Time and tide waits for none. Rice and dal is my daily food. 2. When two singular subjects are joined by ‘and’ and express plurality, verb that follows becomes plural. Fish and meat are available here. Pens and pencils are essentials for writing. 3. When two subjects irrespective of their person and number are joined by with/together with, the verb follows the former subject. The letter with/together with the photographs is sent back by post. 4. When two subjects irrespective of their person and number are joined by or/either…or/neither…nor/nor, the verb agrees with the nearer subject. Either the students or the teacher is invited to the party. Neither the cock nor the hens are in the yard. He or his sisters are to manage the show. 5. A sentence beginning with each of / none of/ the number of has a singular verb. Each of/none of the students is to get a prize. The number of afflicted people is increasing in the camp. 70 topic statement. The following is a paragraph. It is followed by three possible topic statements or topic sentences. Let us see which one best introduces the passage. Straw, which can absorb upto four times its weight in oil, can be thrown on the spill and then be burned. Oil can be taken up and sunk by sand, talcum powder or chalk. Under experimentation, some chemical have been shown to disperse the spill into droplets which microbes can destroy them. i. There are many ways in which oil spills in the sea can be dealt with. ii. Contamination of the sea by oil spills is a critical problem. iii. Wind and wave action can carry oil spills a great distance across the sea. Observation The paragraph gives an idea about the different method of absorbing oil spills. Therefore, the first statement can provide a suitable topic for the paragraph, but in a brief manner such as dealing oil spills in the sea. Materials: Stuffs of a paragraph are known as material. Materials of a paragraph are to be selected carefully in relation to the main idea or the topic statement. Unwanted details are not to be allowed into the arena of the paragraph writing. A topic sentence like recently discovered tracks provide information about Dinosaurs can have the following materials for growth and development of a paragraph on it. i. Important dinosaur tracks have been found in the same old place. ii. Previous finding was near the ancient sea. iii. Tracks are informative; they appear to be combination of young and the old ones. iv. Adult dinosaurs may weigh as much as 10,000 pounds and be 2.3 ft tall. v. The dinosaur tracks are in sequence of 8 to 10 paces. The above points are directly related to given topic and the serve as material for paragraph writing. Supporting points: Materials when arranged into well developed points, we call them supporting points. Let us see how the above supplied materials are put as supporting points. 71 i. Important dinosaur tracks have been found near the ancient sea. ii. These recently discovered track supply important information about dinosaurs. iii. There appear to be tracks of young dinosaurs near the older ones. iv. Dinosaurs may weigh as much as 10,000 pounds and be 2.3 ft tall. v. The tracks are in sequence of 8 to 10 paces. Unity of thought: The writer should take enough care to maintain unity of thought while writing the paragraph. In order to achieve the purpose, • The topic statement should convey the theme of the paragraph; • The supporting points should be linked directly to the theme; and • No unwanted details are to be entertained into the plot of the paragraph. Coherence: The orderly arrangement or a set pattern of the supporting points provides coherence to the paragraph. It guards against any jerks in the flow of ideas and the reader enjoys a smooth ride. Types of paragraph writing Entering into the world of paragraph writing would be a varied and dynamic attempt as paragraph on various topics from different branches of learning demand specific skills of writing. Therefore we would here concentrate on a couples of types of paragraph writing with reference to the requirement. Paragraph writing is an innovative area that requires writing skills such as vocabulary proficiency, structural efficiency and technical narrative delicacy. These skills are to be employed within the area of technical features of paragraph writing. There are two types of paragraph writing: A. General-specific B. Process-description A. General-specific type of paragraph writing: 72 Concept: this type of paragraph begins with a general statement on the topic and gradually grows by adding more and more specific details to it. Hence, it is called so. Features: these paragraphs are written in a straight forward mode. There is no necessity of using an indirect speech or a complex statement to present the idea. The writer has the liberty to opt for smooth ride of idea as well as easy flow of reaching the conclusion. The example below would better represent the type. Paragraph The Evil of Tobacco The evil of tobacco in its myriad form has gripped our society. There are 25 tobacco related diseases including cancer, lung, and heart diseases that play havoc with their deadly effects. As per the data there are 1.84 crore smokers in India. No one is spared. This evil not only affects this 1.84 crore active smokers, but also leaves its marks on the passive smokers who never touched a cigarette in its life. It seems, the recent ban on smoking and tobacco related advertisements is of little use as the number of tobacco smokers is growing daily. About 2200 people die daily in tobacco related diseases. There is an urgent need to close down the tobacco industries if we want to eliminate this evil from its root. At the same time an awareness campaign needs to be launched nationwide in order to save precious and innocent lives. It is quite alarming to know that 19% smoke cigarettes, 54% smoke bids and 27% chew tobacco. Anyone found buying or selling tobacco and its products should be severely punished. Only then can we rid our country of this fatal scourge. B. Process Description Type of Paragraph writing: Concept: This type of paragraph conveys the description of a process followed in doing out any kind of job or work or activity. It is a logical and factual description of a process. Features: These paragraphs are written in a stepwise mode. The writer depends upon spontaneous and continuous narration of factual and objective 75 4. Heading: Then we move on to an appropriate heading to the notices. This heading should make abundantly clear the purpose of the notices. 5. Body: After the heading, we write the brief and to the point body of the notice. The main content of the notice features in the body. 6. Writer’s Name: At the end of the notices we write the name and designation of the notice-writer. The notices have to also be signed by the same person to lend it authority and validity. Content Notices should cover some important points that are to be communicated to the readers. Let us summarize the five points that the content of the notice will cover, the five W’s 1. What: What is the notice about? The notice should be clear about what is going to happen (event), or what has already happened (occasion). This is the crux of the message and should be written clearly. There should not be any ambiguity. 2. Where: If the notice is about an event, then the location of such an event must be written clearly. The venue or the location are important details, so make sure to include this in the notice. 3. When: This is the time and the date of the event or meeting. If possible the duration of the event should also be mentioned to people can schedule their time accordingly. 4. Who: This will be who the notice is addressed to. Who all are suppose to adhere to the notice should be clearly mentioned to avoid confusion. 5. Whom: And final detail should be whom to contact or get in touch with. This mentions who the appropriate authority is to contact. Tips to Remember regarding Notice Writing • Be precise and to the point. The ideal length of notice is 50 words, so precise language is appreciated. • It is a formal form of communication so the language used should be formal as well. No flowery text. • Keep the sentences short and use simple words. Since notices are fairly brief it is best to keep it simple. 76 • Use passive voice as far as possible. • Present your notices in a proper format in a box. The presentation should be neat and thus be appealing to the eye. Solved Example for You Q: On the occasion of Diwali your housing society has planned a feast for all its members. As the chairman of your society write a notice inviting all the members of the society to this gathering. Provide all the necessary details. Ans: ABC Co-operative Housing Society NOTICE 25th October 2017. Diwali Gathering On the auspicious occasion of Diwali, the Society has organized a gathering followed by dinner. All members of the society are requested to attend the event in the clubhouse of the society at 8:00 pm on the 30th of October. XYZ Chairman of ABC Co-operative Housing Society 77 Agenda An agenda is a list of meeting activities in the order in which they are to be taken up, beginning with the call to order and ending with adjournment. It usually includes one or more specific items of business to be acted upon. It may, but is not required to, include specific times for one or more activities. 80 Report Writing What is a Report? Essentially, a report is a short, sharp, concise document which is written for a particular purpose and audience. It generally sets outs and analyses a situation or problem, often making recommendations for future action. It is a factual paper, and needs to be clear and well-structured. Report Writing Format Here are the main sections of the standard report writing format: • Title Section – This includes the name of the author(s) and the date of report preparation. • Summary – There needs to be a summary of the major points, conclusions, and recommendations. It needs to be short as it is a general overview of the report. Some people will read the summary and only skim the report, so make sure you include all the relevant information. It would be best to write this last so you will include everything, even the points that might be added at the last minute. • Introduction – The first page of the report needs to have an introduction. You will explain the problem and show the reader why the report is being made. You need to give a definition of terms if you did not include these in the title section, and explain how the details of the report are arranged. • Body – This is the main section of the report. There needs to be several sections, with each having a subtitle. Information is usually arranged in order of importance with the most important information coming first. • Conclusion – This is where everything comes together. Keep this section free of jargon as most people will read the Summary and Conclusion. • Recommendations – This is what needs to be done. In plain English, explain your recommendations, putting them in order of priority. 81 • Appendices – This includes information that the experts in the field will read. It has all the technical details that support your conclusions. Sample Report Typical structure template for writing a committee report: • Members to which the report is meant for • [Name, institution, location, Chair] • [Name, institution, location, member] • [Date, Time, and Location] • [Provide simple documentation of any meetings of the committee or subset of the committee, in whatever mode and format, e.g., in person, conference call, etc.] • Purpose • [Here you mention the purpose of the report in a brief. This enables the reader to understand the purpose behind writing the format.] • Issues [Write different issues as sub headings and explain their highlights in bullet points below the respective sub headings] • Current Status • • • • • Accomplishments / Issue 1 • • • • 82 • Future Goals • • • • • Near-Term Plans / Main Body of the Report [Use Sub Headings as and where needed. In bullet form, outline near-term actions and plans as well under those sub headings.] • Informal Recommendation(s) [An opportunity to make recommendations, suggestions, and comments to the Board and Executive Director] Respectfully Submitted, [<Author’s Name>] Business Letter Business Letter Template Fields: Date: Use month, day, year format, e.g., March 3, 20xx or 3 March 20xx Sender's Address: It is a good idea to include sender's email and url, if available. Don't include this information if it's already incorporated into the letterhead design. This will allow customers to find your small business more quickly. Inside Address: Use full name. Mr./Ms. is optional Salutation: Be sure to use a colon at the end of the name, not a comma as in personal letters Body Text: State why you are writing. Establish any connection/mutual relationship up front. Outline the solution, providing proof in the way of examples and expert opinions. Group related information into paragraphs 85 Job application letter A job application letter (also known as a cover letter) is a letter you send with your resume to provide information on your skills and experience. This letter is your chance to “sell” yourself to an employer, explaining why you are an ideal candidate for a position. Sample Job Application Letter Elizabeth Johnson 12 Jones Street Portland, Maine 04101 555-555-5555 elizabethjohnson@emailaddress.com January 14, 2018 Mark Smith Human Resources Manager Veggies to Go 238 Main Street Portland, Maine 04101 Dear Mr. Smith, I was so excited when my former coworker, Jay Lopez, told me about your opening for an administrative assistant in your Portland offices. A long-time Veggies to Go customer and an experienced admin, I would love to help the company achieve its mission of making healthy produce as available as takeout. I’ve worked for small companies for my entire career, and I relish the opportunity to wear many hats and work with the team to succeed. In my latest role as an administrative assistant at Beauty Corp, I saved my employer thousands of dollars in temp workers by implementing a self- 86 CV The term CV is an abbreviation of the Latin word Curriculum Vitae, which is literally translated to “the course of your life”. A CV is a very in-depth document that describes your career journey step- by-step, including all sorts of personal information. You can look at the CV as a comprehensive description of everything you have ever done, all the achievements you are proud of, and all the publications that bear your name. You need to update your CV every time you accomplish something new academically or professionally. Meaning, whenever you get a new job, publish something new, obtain a new certificate, and so on. There is no rule of thumb on how long a CV should be - depending on the amount of experience, it can range from 2 to 8 pages. What to Include on a CV 1. Full name 2. Contact information 3. Professional title, resume summary, or resume objective 4. Research interests 5. Education 6. Publications (both academic papers and books) scheduling system for the customer service reps that cut down on canceled shifts. I also learned web design, time sheet coding, and perfected my Excel skills. I’ve attached my resume for your consideration and hope to speak with you soon about your needs for the role. Best Regards, Handwritten Signature (for a hard copy letter) Elizabeth Johnson 87 Gloria Gonzalez 3204 Windover Way Houston, TX 77204 ggonzalez@email.com 000.123.4567 (Cell) RESEARCH INTERESTS Hispanic Literature, Latin American Literature, Peninsular Literature EDUCATION Ph.D. in Spanish (US Hispanic Literature), 2018 – University of Houston. Dissertation: Quixote Reborn: The Wanderer in US Hispanic Literature. Sancho Rodriguez, Chair M.A. in Spanish, June 2015 – University of Houston B.A. in Spanish, June 2013 – University of Houston APPOINTMENTS Adjunct Lecturer: University of Houston, Department of Hispanic Studies, September 2018 to Present. PUBLICATIONS Book Gonzalez, Gloria. Quixote Reborn: The Wanderer in US Hispanic Literature. New Haven: Yale University Press (forthcoming) Peer-reviewed Journals 7. Teaching or lecturing experience 8. Work experience 9. Conferences and courses 10. Skills 11. Certificates 12. Languages 13. Grants of fellowships 14. References Curriculum Vitae Example 90 UNIT-V: ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, meaning "to share” is the act of conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs and semiotic rules. Elements of Communication Communication may be defined as a process concerning exchange of facts or ideas between persons holding different positions in an organisation to achieve mutual harmony. The communication process is dynamic in nature rather than a static phenomenon. Communication process as such must be considered a continuous and dynamic inter-action, both affecting and being affected by many variables. 1. Context - Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This context may be physical, social, chronological or cultural. 91 Every communication proceeds with context. The sender chooses the message to communicate within a context. 2. Sender / Encoder - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the message. A sender makes use of symbols (words or graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the required response. For instance - a training manager conducting training for new batch of employees. Sender may be an individual or a group or an organization. The views, background, approach, skills, competencies, and knowledge of the sender have a great impact on the message. The verbal and non verbal symbols chosen are essential in ascertaining interpretation of the message by the recipient in the same terms as intended by the sender. 3. Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It is a sign that elicits the response of recipient. Communication process begins with deciding about the message to be conveyed. It must be ensured that the main objective of the message is clear. 4. Medium - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message. The sender must choose an appropriate medium for transmitting the message else the message might not be conveyed to the desired recipients. The choice of appropriate medium of communication is essential for making the message effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient. This choice of communication medium varies depending upon the features of communication. For instance - Written medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small group of people, while an oral medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient as misunderstandings are cleared then and there. 5. Recipient / Decoder - Recipient / Decoder is a person for whom the message is intended / aimed / targeted. The degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent upon various factors such as knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of encoder on decoder. 6. Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the sender to analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in form of memos, reports, etc. 92 Steps of communication process The communication process refers to the steps through which communication takes place between the sender and the receiver. This process starts with conceptualizing an idea or message by the sender and ends with the feedback from the receiver. In details, communication process consists of the following eight steps: 1. Developing idea by the sender: In the first step, the communicator develops or conceptualizes an idea to be sent. It is also known as the planning stage since in this stage the communicator plans the subject matter of communication. 2. Encoding: Encoding means converting or translation the idea into a perceivable form that can be communicated to others. 3. Developing the message: After encoding the sender gets a message that can be transmitted to the receiver. The message can be oral, written, symbolic or nonverbal. For example, when people talk, speech is the message; when people write a letter, the words and sentences are the message; when people cries, the crying is the message. 4. Selecting the medium: Medium is the channel or means of transmitting the message to the receiver. Once the sender has encoded his into a message, the next step is to select a suitable medium for transmitting it to the receiver. The medium of communication can be speaking, writing, signaling, gesturing etc. 5. Transmission of message: In this step, the sender actually transmits the message through chosen medium. In the communication cycle, the tasks of the sender end with the transmission of the message. 6. Receiving the message by receiver: This stage simply involves the reception of sender’s message by the receiver. The message can be received in the form of hearing, seeing, feeling and so on. 7. Decoding: Decoding is the receiver’s interpretation of the sender’s message. Here the receiver converts the message into thoughts and tries to analyze and understand it. Effective communication can occur 95 successfully received and the receiver provides the sender with desirable feedback. This is a rather laborious explanation of the Communication Process; a process that can take quite some time to explain, and can oftentimes take a split second to occur. In our next article, we’ll discuss some of the things that can get in the way of theCommunication Process. Formal communication is a system of passing messages and information between positions within an organization through officially designated channels. Formal communication refers to interchange of information officially. The flow of communication is controlled and is a deliberate effort. This makes it possible for the information to reach the desired place without any hindrance, at a little cost and in a proper way. This is also known as ‘Through Proper Channel Communication.’ Characteristics Following are the chief characteristics of the formal communication: (1) Written and Oral: Formal communication can both be written and oral. Daily works are handled through oral communication, while the policy matters require written communication. (2) Formal Relations: This communication is adopted among those employees where formal relations have been established by the organisation. The sender and the receiver have some sort of organisational relations. (3) Prescribed Path: 96 The communication has to pass through a definite channel while moving from one person to another. For example, to convey the feelings of a worker to the manager, the foreman’s help has to be sought. (4) Organisational Message: This channel is concerned with the authorised organisational messages only and the personal messages are out of its jurisdiction. (5) Deliberate Effort: This channel of communication is not established automatically but effort has to be made for its creation. It is decided keeping in view the objectives of the organisation. Advantages The formal communication has the following advantages: (1) Maintenance of Authority of the Officers: Formal communication maintains constant relations among the superiors and the subordinates as a result of whom the dignity of the line superiors is maintained. Consequently, it is convenient to control the subordinates and fix their responsibility which is absolutely needed for effective and successful control. (2) Clear and Effective Communication: In formal communication, there is a direct contact among the managers and the subordinates. Both understand the capability, habits, feelings, etc. of one another. Managers know as to when and under which conditions their subordinates need information. In this way, this communication is capable of making available timely information. Hence, it is clear and effective. 97 (3) Orderly Flow of Information: The information has to pass through a definite route from one person to another. Hence, the flow of information is systematic. (4) Easy Knowledge of Source of Information: In this type of communication, the source of each information can be easily located. Limitations Following are the disadvantages or limitations of the formal communication: (1) Overload of Work: In a modern business organisation much information, many messages and other things have to be communicated. Under formal communication, they are routed through a definite channel and this consumes much of the time of the superiors and thus some other important works are left unattended. (2) Distortion of Information: This method can be a hindrance in the flow of information. Sometimes the distance between the sender and the receiver is so big that the information has to pass through many hands and by the time it reaches the receiver it is distorted. Thus it fails to serve its purpose. (3) Indifferent Officers: The officers do not pay much attention to the suggestions and complaints of the subordinates. In such a case a subordinate may come lose his faith in the effectiveness of communication.