Anatomy and Function of the Brain: A Comprehensive Guide for MCAT 2024, Exams of Nursing

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MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 Cerebral cortex - Correct Answers ✅Forebrain, known as the cerebrum; outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres; contains 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal Frontal Lobe - Correct Answers ✅Forebrain; executive function, impulse control, long-term planning (prefrontal cortex), motor function (primary motor cortex), and speech production Broca's area - Correct Answers ✅Forebrain; important for speech production, found in the frontal lobe Parietal Lobe - Correct Answers ✅Forebrain; sensation of touch, pressure, temperature and pain (somatosensory cortex); spatial processing, orientation, and manipulation somatosensory cortex - Correct Answers ✅Forebrain; found in the parietal lobe, important for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain sensation Occipital lobe - Correct Answers ✅Forebrain; visual processing temporal lobe - Correct Answers ✅Forebrain; sound processing (auditory complex), speech perception (Wernicke's area), memory, and emotion (limbic system) MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 Wernicke's area - Correct Answers ✅Forebrain; found in the temporal lobe; important for speech perception Basal ganglia - Correct Answers ✅Forebrain; coordinates muscle movement from cortex to the rest of the brain and spinal cord; smooth movements and maintain posture stability limbic system - Correct Answers ✅Forebrain; primarily associated with emotion and memory; includes the septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus Septal nuclei - Correct Answers ✅Forebrain; part of the limbic system; feelings of pleasure, pleasure-seeking behavior, and addiction Amygdala - Correct Answers ✅Forebrain; part of the limbic system, controls fear and aggression Hippocampus - Correct Answers ✅Forebrain; part of the limbic system; consolidates memories and communicates with other parts of the limbic system through the fornix MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 Optic Chiasm - Correct Answers ✅point in visual nerve system where nasal fibers (carrying temporal vision) cross and the temporal fibers (carrying nasal vision) pass directly though to the optic tract Bitemporal Hemianopsia: Lesion of Optic Chaism would cause would knock out the _____ fibers and the person would lose the ______ vision - Correct Answers ✅Nasal fibers Temporal vision Nasal fibers - Correct Answers ✅carry information from the temporal field of vision (Remember: visual image crosses over and hits opposite side of retina) Temporal Fibers - Correct Answers ✅carry information from the nasal field of vision (Remember: visual image crosses over and hits opposite side of retina) Right optic tract - Correct Answers ✅Carries information from the right temporal fibers and the left nasal fibers (temporal visual field of left eye) and right temporal fibers (nasal visual field of right eye); in total contains left visual field from each eye Lesion of Right optic tract - Correct Answers ✅Person would lose vision from the left visual field MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 Left Optic tract - Correct Answers ✅Carries information from the left temporal fiber (nasal visual field of left eye) and the right nasal fiber (temporal visual field of right eye); in total contains right visual field from each eye Lesion of Left Optic tract - Correct Answers ✅Person would lose vision of the right visual field Lesion of occiptal lobe - Correct Answers ✅would cause loss of vision of the opposite visual field, but maintain a part of the central visual field Rods - Correct Answers ✅photoreceptors found at the retina; more commonly found throughout retina except at the fovea; recieve B and W imaging Cons - Correct Answers ✅photoreceptors found at the retina; spread throughout but concentrated at the fovea; contail R, G, or B rhodopsins that perceive color Bipolar cells - Correct Answers ✅Direct input from the photoreceptors; synapse with ganglion cells; contain 2 types of insulator cells: horizontal and amacrine MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 Series of Visual Processing - Correct Answers ✅visual input --> focused on retina --> transformed to electrical signal by photoreceptors--> travels to optic nerve--> optic chiasm swaps visual fields to opposite hemispheres--> processed in the lateral genicualte nuclceus (LGN)--> visual radiation-->visual cortex and superior colliculus Parallel Processing - Correct Answers ✅identify characteristics, apply them to memory, and the recall a word to describe the object we see later on Feature Detection Theory - Correct Answers ✅recognizes features, identify desired object in visual field, filter by features Signal detection theory - Correct Answers ✅effects of nonsensory factors, such as experiences, motives, and expectations on perception of stimuli Response Bias - Correct Answers ✅examined using signal detection experiments with four possible outcomes: hits, misses, false alarms, and correct negatives Operant Condtioning - Correct Answers ✅BF Skinner; associative learning in which the frequency of a behavior is modified using reinforcements or punishments MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 response as the unconditioned stimulus, forming the conditioned response; (exp. Pavlov's Dogs) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - Correct Answers ✅normal stimulus that is not learned; innate (ex. the food stimulates hunger) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - Correct Answers ✅neutral stimulus becomes associated with the UCS (ex. the bell becomes associated with the food) Unconditioned Response (UCR) - Correct Answers ✅normal response to stimulus, innate response (ex. the sight of food causes salivation) Conditioned Response (CR) - Correct Answers ✅the conditioned stimulus produces the same effect of the UCS forming the response (ex. ringing the bell causes salivation) Broca's Aphasia - Correct Answers ✅hard to produce words in correct orders; difficulty in speech production; nonfluent aphasia Wernicke's aphasia - Correct Answers ✅fluent, nonsensical aphasia with lack of comprehension MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 Conduction aphasia - Correct Answers ✅inability to repeat words despite intac speech generation and comprehension (damage of the arcuate fasciculus that connects Werknicke's to Broca's Region) Language Development in Child - Correct Answers ✅1. Babbling (9-12 mo.) 2. 1 word/month (12-18 mo.) 3. Explosion of words (18-20 mo.) 4. 3+ word sentences (2-3 yrs) 5. most language rules are mastered (5 yrs) Nativist Language Acquisition Theory - Correct Answers ✅we have an innate capactiy for language; use a brain region called "Language Acquisition Device" (LAD); the sensitive period of language development occurs before puberty Learning (Behavioral)Language Acquisition Theory - Correct Answers ✅learn language by operant conditioning; reinforcement of sounds/words Social Interactionist Language Theory - Correct Answers ✅mix of biological and social processes forms language MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 Whorfian Hypothesis - Correct Answers ✅Language affects how we think; cultural influenences James-Lange Theory of Emotion - Correct Answers ✅stimulus results first and results in physiological arousal, which causes a secondary response when emotion is labeled (without feedback from visceral organs or vagus nerve, emotion can not be experienced) Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion - Correct Answers ✅Cognitive (emotion) and physiological stimuli occur simultaneously, and thus result in an action Schacter-Singer Theory of Emotion - Correct Answers ✅"two factor" theory; both the arousal and the labeling of the arousal (cognitive appraisal) based on the environment elicits an emotion; use environment to help determine what emotion should be expressed 7 Universal Emotion - Correct Answers ✅Paul Eckman continued off of Darwin ideas; innate emotions elicited by the same facial expressions: happy, sad, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, and anger Storage of emotion - Correct Answers ✅explicit memories-->medial temporary--> memory about emotion implicit memory-->amygdala--> emotional memory MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 Self-discrepancy theory - Correct Answers ✅+actual-self: the way we see ourselves as we are + ideal self: who we would like to be + ought self: who others think we should be *the closer they are, the higher self esteem Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning - Correct Answers ✅Preconventional (preadolescence), Conventional (adolescence to adult), and Post-conventional (adult life, if at all) Preconventional Morality - Correct Answers ✅Kohlberg consequences of moral choices 1. Obedience: avoid punishment 2. Self-interest: gaining rewards ("you scratch my back, i'll scratch yours") Conventional Morality - Correct Answers ✅Kohlberg see themselves in relation to others 3. Conformity: seek approval of others 4. Law and Order: maintain social order in the highest regard MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 Postconventional Morality - Correct Answers ✅Kohlberg occur when morals conflict with laws 5. Social contract: moral rules as conventions, designed to achieve a greater good; focused on individual rights 6. Universal Human Ethics: reasons decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles Vygotsky's view of Cultural and Biosocial Developlment - Correct Answers ✅+Cognitive development is based on cultural limits +Zone of proximal development: skills and abilities in the process of development +More knowledgeable other help child achieve these skills Psychosexual Development of Identity - Correct Answers ✅Freud's 5 Stages 1. Oral Stage: 0-1 year 2. Anal Stage: 1-3 years 3. Phallic/Oedipal Stage: 3-5 years 4. Latency Stage: 5 years-Puberty 5. Genital: after puberty to adulthood Oral Stage - Correct Answers ✅0-1 year; fixated around mouth MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 Adult: exhibits excessive dependency Anal Stage - Correct Answers ✅1-3 years; fixated around anus gratification of potty-training Adult: excessive orderliness (anal-retentive) or sloppiness Phallic/Oedipal Stage - Correct Answers ✅3-5 years: fixated around opp. sex parent Boys: envy father, castration anxiety, resolve by having guilty feelings, and desire to be like father, est. sexual identity and internalize moral values Girls: Electra conflict; penis envy -de-eroticize to go to next stage Latency Stage - Correct Answers ✅5 years to puberty: redirect libidal energy Genital Stage - Correct Answers ✅Puberty to adulthood: enter healthy heterosexual relationships if fixation of other stages has been resolved Erikson's Psychosocial Development - Correct Answers ✅Crisis involved from needs and social demands; resolving conflicts 1. trust vs. mistrust (0-1 yr) MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 - bitterness and worthless feeling of life; fear of death Id - Correct Answers ✅pleasure principle; primal and instinctive "satisty now, not later" in the unconscious/subconscious Ego - Correct Answers ✅reality principle; guides or inhibits activity of id "postpone pleasure until satisfaction can actually be obtained" *Organizer of the mind-balances the id and superego partly in unconscious, preconscious, and conscious Superego - Correct Answers ✅personality principle; perfectionist, focused on the ideal-self Conscious: collection of improper actions for which you are punished ego-ideal: proper actions that receive reward partly in the un, sub, and conscious Insticts - Correct Answers ✅innate needs that influence behavior Eros - Correct Answers ✅life-instincts: promote survival MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 Thanatos - Correct Answers ✅death-instincts: unconscious wish of death; destruction Defense mechanisms - Correct Answers ✅relieve anxiety caused by the id and superego Repression - Correct Answers ✅defense mech.; force undesired thoughts and urges to unconscious; "unconscious forgetting" ex. Can't remember Father's funeral Suppression - Correct Answers ✅defense mech.; "conscious forgetting" ex. Regression - Correct Answers ✅defense mech.; revert to earlier development stage ex. You get in an argument and stomp off and pout Reaction formation - Correct Answers ✅defense mech.; unconciously convert urges to exact opposite (ex. hatred for a person who is desirable, but really they are just unobtainable) MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 Projection - Correct Answers ✅defense mech.; attribute undesired attributes feelings to others ex. Yell at husband bc you are mad at him, but say he is mad at you Rationalization - Correct Answers ✅defense mech; justify behavior that is acceptable to self and society ex. I usually study, but know people that cheat so it's nbd I cheated this time Displacement - Correct Answers ✅defense mech.; transfer undesired urges from person/object to another ex. Get mad and break glass against a wall Sublimation - Correct Answers ✅defense mech.; transform unacceptable urges into socially accepted behaviors ex. Release your anger by playing football or boxing Carl Jung Psychoanalysis - Correct Answers ✅Personal and collective unconscious (in all human, expereinces of ancestors) Archetypes: Persona, Anima/animus, shadow, MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI) - Correct Answers ✅personality tests, based on Jung's Dichotomies of Personaltiy E v I: extraversion vs. introversion S v N: Sensing vs. Intuiting T v F: Thinking vs Feeling J v P Judging(order) vs Percieving (spontaneous) Maslow's Hierarchy of needs - Correct Answers ✅Allocate resources to best satisfy needs 1. Physiological (breathing, food, water, sex, sleep) 2. Safety (body, shelter, employment, family, health) 3. Love/Belonging (friends, family, sex. intimacy) 4. Esteem (confidence, achievement, respect for and by others) 5. Self-Actualization (morality, creativity, spontaneity, prob-soliving, lack of prej., accept facts) Self-Determination Theory (SDT) - Correct Answers ✅3 universal Needs: Autonomy (in control of self), competence (complete & excel at tasks), relatedness (accepted and wanted) Piaget's Cognitive Development - Correct Answers ✅organized behavior and thought patterns into schema Sensorimotor 0-2 years MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 Preoperational 2-7 years Concrete operational 7-11 years Formal operational 11 years + ("adolescence") Sensorimotor Stage - Correct Answers ✅Piaget's stage at 0-2 years manipulate environment to own needs Circular Reactions and Object Permanence Primary Circular Reactions (of Sensorimotor Stage) - Correct Answers ✅repetition of movement that occured by chance; meet needs by self; ex. thumb sucking Secondary circular Reactions (of Sensorimotor Stage) - Correct Answers ✅Repetition of movement is focused on something outside the body; need response from environment; ex. throwing toys Object Permanence (of Sensorimotor Stage) - Correct Answers ✅objects exist when out of view; starts representational thought --> milestone to start Preoperational Piaget's Preoperational Stage - Correct Answers ✅2-7 years; symbolic thinking(pretend, imagination), egocentrism(self-focused), and MCAT Psychology High Yield Content Question & Answers 2024 centration (focus on one aspect of a phenomenon, do not understand conservation/fractions) Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage - Correct Answers ✅7-11 years; understand conservation, and consider perspectives of others; logical though of concrete objects Piaget's Formal Operational Stage - Correct Answers ✅11 years +; abstract, logical thinking, problem solving, can use the pendulum experiment Fluid Intelligence - Correct Answers ✅Adult cognition; problem-solving skills, peak at early adulthood Crystallized Intellligence - Correct Answers ✅Adult cognition; use of learned skills and knowledge, peaks and middle adulthood Stages of Consciousness/Sleep - Correct Answers ✅Awake, Stage 1, Stage 2, Stage 3/4, REM BATs sleep in the Day (EEG waves) Awake Stage (EEG) - Correct Answers ✅Beta and alpha waves; able to perceive, process, access, and express info