Memory Processes: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval, Study notes of Psychology

Download Memory Processes: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval and more Study notes Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! 1 Application Exercise 3
Proponents of Behavioral Learning Theory believe that we are largely products of our environment. That is, the way we behave, our personal habits, our likes and dislikes, and our emotional responses are primarily learned through principles of Operant and Classical Conditioning.
Based on our discussions in class as well as the textbook’s chapter (ch. 6) on Learning:
1. Provide everyday examples from your own experiences of each of the following terms at work -- in other words, how do or how have these terms/principles operated to shape and influence your own behavior and those around you?
2. Be sure to clearly specify how the respective terms or principles operate in your examples. In other words, how do the examples you are providing fit the particular terms or principles?
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Presentation Punishment
Removal Punishment
Extinction
Stimulus Control (discrimination) Memory and Information Processing Which penny is correct? 2 Which penny is correct? Sometimes can’t remember a word??
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: forgotten information feels as though it is just out of reach
Talking with friends
Taking an exam: (I know this definition— what’s the word?) Human Memory: Basic Questions 1. How does info get into memory? 2. How is info maintained in memory? 3. How is info pulled back out of memory? 5 Encoding: Getting Info Into Memory
Attention acts like a filter that screens out most stimuli
Cocktail party phenomenon: Can hear your name)
people have difficulty if they try to focus their attention on two or more inputs simultaneously
Divided attention impairs performance (e.g., cell phones/texting!!!) Enriching Encoding: Improving Memory Other ways to enrich the encoding process and improve memory
Structural Encoding: emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus; words flashed on a screen, we would look at how they were printed (font, size) or length of the words (how many letters); may lead to..
Phonemic Encoding: emphasizes what a word sounds like
Semantic Encoding: emphasizes the meaning of verbal input or what the words represent.
Levels-of Processing Theory: proposes the deeper level of processing, the more meaningful the memory. 6 Enriching Encoding cont.
Elaboration is linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding
Example: Classical Conditioning, we talked about phobias. May think of your own phobias—learning about classical conditioning
Therefore, thinking of examples is elaborating Enriching Encoding:Improving Memory
Visual Imagery is the creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered
Easier for concrete objects: balloon vs truth
Dual-coding theory : memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall. High imagery words easier to remember
Self-Referent Encoding involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant
Example: Making information personally meaningful (adjectives flashed on a screen applied personally 7 Sensory Memory
Information comes into you and reaches your senses (sensory memory)
Information is constantly coming in
If you don’t pay attention to it ever so briefly, it’s gone!!! – Forgotten!!
Exact replica of an environmental message which usually lasts for about ¼ second Think Sparkler!
Sensory Memory allows the sensation of a visual pattern, sound, or touch to linger for a brief moment after the sensory stimulation is over
For vision, people see an afterimage rather than the actual stimulus
With a sparkler you see the afterimage when you move it fast enough (of a circle) rather than single stimulus points (or separate points of light) Short-term Memory the memory system for holding a limited amount of unrehearsed info for short time • Capacity is limited  (7 plus or minus 2) = 5 to 9 bits/chunks • Amount of time info can be held is limited (up to about 20 seconds) • One way to hold info in short-term memory longer is by rehearsal 10 Short-term Memory (continued) DuerfdnumgiS Duerf-DnumgiS Sigmund Freud These examples demonstrate 2 important processes 1. how we organize info is very important -- The better organized it is the better STM can handle it and then transfer it to LTM.
Chunking -- grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit 2. The interplay of STM & LTM -- LTM can help out or assist STM. Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory
STM is not limited to phoneme encoding and decay is not the only process for the loss of information
Phonological Loop: at work when you use recitation to temporarily hold on to a phone number
Visuospatial sketchpad: permits people to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images
Central Executive: controls attention, switching the focus and dividing as needed; Coordinates actions of other models
Episodic Buffer: a temporary, limited capacity store that allows the various components of working memory to integrate information that serves as an interface between working memory and long-term memory 11 Long-term Memory The memory system for holding a large amount of info for a very long time. 3 Types of Long Term Memory 1. Episodic 2. Semantic 3. Procedural 1. Episodic - Our memory of our personal experiences. • Stored as Mental Images • space & time cues helpful for retrieval. • hard to remember -- unless something memorable happens during episode. 12 2. Semantic – General Knowledge about the world, stored as facts that make little/no reference to one’s personal experiences ….facts, concepts, principles.
Organized as a network of connected ideas 3. Procedural - involves knowing “how” to do something. • Stored in the form of stimulus- response connections Retrieval: Getting Info Out of Memory “Tip-of-the-tongue”???? Retrieval cues:
Context cues Reconstructing memories
We tend to “fill in” (or reconstruct) parts of our memories based on past experience, expectations
Misinformation effect: the recall of an event is altered by introducing misleading postevent information 15 Mnemonics (memory aiding strategies) 1. Keyword Method • good for paired-associate learning • helps make connection between image & word payaso = clown pato = duck Mnemonics (continued) 2. Loci Method • good for serial learning ball,bread, cow, shirt 3. Rhyming 30 days hath September, April, June, and November….. Mnemonics (continued) 4. Initial Letter Strategies Roy G Biv Arithmetic Homes My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nine Pickles 16 Improving Everyday Memory
Engage in adequate rehearsal & test self
Overlearning
Schedule distributed practice and minimize interference
Engage in deep processing
organize information
Enrich encoding with verbal mnemonics
Enrich encoding with visual mnemonics End of Memory and Information Processing The Neuroscience of Forgetting
Amnesia: Forgetting caused by physical problems in the brain
Retrograde amnesia affects events that happened prior to the point of injury
Often a temporary result of injury
Anterograde amnesia affects events that happened after the point of injury
Tends to be permanent
However, implicit memory may be spared 17 Figure 7.16 The anatomy of memory. All the brain structures identified here have been implicated in efforts to discover the anatomical structures involved in memory. Although its exact contribution to memory remains the subject of debate, the hippocampus is thought to play an especially central role in memory. Photo: Wadsworth collection. Figure 7.16 Levels-of-Processing Theory Levels-of-Processing Theory