Memory: Types, Processes, and Structures, Slides of Cognitive Psychology

Download Memory: Types, Processes, and Structures and more Slides Cognitive Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! Memory I: Basic Findings Docsity.com Types of Memory MEMORY DECLARATIVE (EXPLICIT) NONDECLARATIVE (IMPLICIT) FACTS EVENTS SKILLS PRIMING SIMPLE NONASSOCIATIVE AND CLASSICAL LEARNING HABITS CONDITIONING Docsity.com Key Distinctions • Time – Immediate vs. recent vs. remote memory • Content – Episodic (autobiographical) vs. semantic memory • Mode of Retrieval – Explicit vs. implicit memory (processes, systems) – Declarative vs. nondeclarative knowledge • Tasks (NOT processes!) – Direct vs. indirect memory Docsity.com Direct Memory Measures • Recall of facts or events – serial recall: recall in the same order as learned – free recall: recall in any order – cued recall: given some cue to stimulate retrieval • Recognition – multiple choice – yes-no – free-field Docsity.com Indirect Memory Measures • Measures of facilitated responding (priming) – Lexical decision – Reading time – Fragmented picture identification • Measures of skill learning – Motor – Conceptual (0,1,1,2,3,5,8….) Docsity.com Sperling's Data — a a i hoe = fat _ = a i bee o BAtimulus Interval Docsity.com Proposed Properties of STS • Limited Capacity – digit span, recency measures – Miller’s “magic number 7+2” • Coding – material specific – acoustic – visual • Forgetting from STS – Decay (passive) – Interference (active) Docsity.com Waugh & Norman (1965) Primary Memory (STM) Secondary Memory (LTM) Forgotten Rehearsal Stimulus Digit Probe Task 7 9 5 1 2 9 3 8 0 4 6 3 7 6 0 2[tone] Answer: “9” “What # followed last # initially?” Docsity.com Forgetting over time in short-term memory. Data from Peterson and Peterson (1959). Docsity.com Interference Paradigms RETROACTIVE INHIBITION Experimental Learn Learn Retention Test Group List A List B Interval List A Control Learn Retention Test Group List A anak: Interval List A Time — PROACTIVE INHIBITION Experimental Learn Learn Retention Test Group List A List B Interval List B Control Learn Retention Test Group List B Interval List B - Time > Docsity.com Wickens (1972) Release from Pl Percent Correct Recall 100 40 20 4——-a& Experimental O—O Control ik | ! l 1 2 3 4 Trial Docsity.com They used to call it “short-term memory”, but that’s so not cool now. Who invented “working memory”? Docsity.com Cognitive Psychology Single-cell electrophysiology Functional Neuroimaging Cognitive Neuropsychology Working Memory Docsity.com Working Memory • A system which keeps a representation of information active and “on line” for immediate future use (short-term memory) • Involves the “temporary storage and manipulation of information that is assumed to be necessary for a wide range of cognitive functions” (Baddeley) • Demands: storage v. manipulation • The more studies, the more complex it gets: Multi-componential/material-specific (e.g., verbal vs. nonverbal; maintenance v. manipulation) Docsity.com CLS ao ARTICULATORY AONB ———sz-}] PHONOLOGICAL CONTROL PRESENTATION STORE PROCESS VISUAL WORD PRESENTATION A ® Docsity.com Immediate word recall as a function of modality of presentation (visual vs. auditory), presence vs. absence of articulatory suppression, and word length. Docsity.com Features of the Phonological Loop • Two features: – Phonological store • Auditory presentation of words has direct access • Visual presentation only has indirect access • Vallar and Baddeley (1984) – Articulatory process Docsity.com Evidence for the Visual Cache and Inner Scribe • Quinn and McConnell (1996) – differential interference from spatial v. visual tasks – The method of loci (visual) – The pegword technique (visual + spatial?) • Beschin, Cocchini, Della Sala, and Logie (1997) – Evidence from NL, who had suffered a stroke – left represeentational neglect • Smith and Jonides (1997) – Probe location or form- different PET activation (right frontoparietal for spatial; left parietotemporal for visual form) Docsity.com Evaluation of the Visuo-spatial Sketchpad • Supported by imaging research that shows the independence in spatial and visual tasks • Consistent with ventral-dorsal visual pathway concept • Support from studies of brain-damaged patients • Many tasks require both components • Not clear how information is combined and integrated Docsity.com Central Executive • Baddeley (1996, p. 6) admitted – “our initial specification of the central executive was so vague as to serve as little more than a ragbag into which could be stuffed all the complex strategy selection, planning, and retrieval checking that clearly goes on when subjects perform even the apparently simple digit span task.” • Concept of central executive has evolved as an attentional system Docsity.com Supervisory attentional system Inhibitory links Li Q Perceptual Contention system scheduling Schema control units => Action Docsity.com Evidence for the Central Executive • Collette and Van der Linden (2002, p. 120) reviewed numerous brain-imaging studies involving several central executive functions • “Some prefrontal areas (e.g., BA9/46, 10, and anterior cingulate gyrus) are systematically activated by a large range of various executive tasks, suggesting their involvement in rather general executive processes. However, other frontal areas . . . and even parietal regions . . . are also frequently found during the execution of executive tasks. Since these regions are involved less systematically in the different executive processes explored in this review, we can hypothesise that they have more specific functions.” Docsity.com Central Executive oe [Visuo-spatial Phonological sketch-pad loop Fluid | Crystallized systems systems Docsity.com Verbal 3-Back Task Docsity.com • Docsity.com table Docsity.com deer Docsity.com boy  Docsity.com fence Docsity.com  Docsity.com Spatial 3-Back Task Docsity.com • Docsity.com • C Docsity.com • R Docsity.com • M  Docsity.com • X  Docsity.com  Docsity.com  Working memory and associative memory may be distinguished using the delayed response task  When PFC-lesioned monkey must remember which well is baited from trial to trial, performance is poor  When PFC-lesioned monkey must remember which symbol is baited from trial to trial, performance is good Docsity.com Nicramoters Docsity.com Goldman-Rakic, 1996 Docsity.com BR a To stiLd-3 S114.1:2 S111 Hay mee ia Tm mI s1it-4 S118 —s is Fig. 2. Activity of a single prefrontal neuron, exemplifying persistent discharges during the execution of the oculomotor delayed- response task. Discharges are arranged as to indicate the location of the cue. The neuron is mostly active during the delay period fol- lgwing presentation of a stimulus in the upper left (135-degree) location. From Funahashi and others (1989) with permission. Docsity.com Cohen et al., 1998 Docsity.com Cohen et al (1998); memory structures active during delay Docsity.com Two views about specificity in WM • Domain-specificity (Goldman-Rakic, Ungerleider, Courtney) – Ventral prefrontal: object working memory – Dorsal prefrontal: spatial working memory • Process-specificity (Petrides, D’Esposito) – Ventral prefrontal: sequential organization and storage – Dorsal prefrontal: executive control and monitoring Docsity.com Encoding • Encoding I: bringing information processing to bear on TBR information • Encoding II: utilizing the fruits of Encoding I as a means for transferring information from STM to LTM • Examples: elaborative rehearsal, semantic association, imagery, other strategies Docsity.com Levels of Processing • Emphasizes encoding processes • Craik & Lockhart (1972) – memory is byproduct of cognitive processes engaged during learning – notion of “levels”; depth defined in terms of meaningfulness rather than on number of operations – rehearsal • important for maintaining information at a given level of analysis • important for elaborating or processing info to a deeper level – Craik & Tulving (case, rhyme, semantic levels) • Maintenance: repeating previous analyses • Elaboration: deeper, more semantic analysis Docsity.com Case 60 oo Phyme ...Gentence 0 Docsity.com Problems with LOP interpretation • No independent measure of “depth” • “Deeper” isn’t always “better”: Morris, Bransford, & Franks (1977) TEST TYPE Standard Rhyme Semantic Encoding .83 .31 Rhyme Encoding .62 .49 •Conclusion: memory performance not just a func- tion of depth, but depends on the match between encoding processes and type of test Docsity.com Encoding Specificity Principle (Tulving) Overlap determines success at retrieval Operations . -*7Operations at p at Encoding wo Jest Storage/Consolidation • Consolidation: process by which information is integrated into stored information • Thought to be dependent on hippocampal-cortical interactions • Can take place quickly or over many years (“fast” and “slow” consolidation) • Consolidation and retrograde amnesia trauma RA at 2 weeks RA at 6 months Docsity.com Mood-state-dependent Memory • Free and cued recall as a function of mood state (happy or sad) at learning and at recall. Based on data in Kenealy (1997). Effect present for free recall but not cued recall. Shows that mood state effects memory particularly when no other powerful retrieval cues are available. Docsity.com Evidence for Encoding Specificity Principle • Mean word recall as a function of input cues (strong or weak) and output cues (strong or weak). Data from Thomson and Tulving (1970). Strong = strongly associated Weak = weakly associated Docsity.com Context Dependent Memory • (a) Recall in the same vs. different contexts, data from Godden and Baddeley (1975); (b) Recognition in the same vs. different contexts. Data from Godden and Baddeley (1980). Docsity.com Types of Memory MEMORY DECLARATIVE (EXPLICIT) NONDECLARATIVE (IMPLICIT) FACTS EVENTS SKILLS PRIMING SIMPLE NONASSOCIATIVE AND CLASSICAL LEARNING HABITS CONDITIONING ® Docsity.com The Case of Henry M (H.M.) Docsity.com Docsity.com Basal Forebrain Medial Thalamus Medial Temporal Lobe including the hippocampus Docsity.com The Human Amnesic Syndrome • Impaired new learning (anterograde amnesia), exacerbated by increasing retention delay • Impaired recollection of events learned prior to onset of amnesia (retrograde amnesia, remote memory impairment), often in temporally graded fashion • Not limited to one sensory modality or type of material • Normal IQ, attention span, “nondeclarative” forms of memory Docsity.com Recent/Remote Distinction • Three patterns of RA – Temporally-graded – Temporally-limited – Decade-nonspecific • Typically see both AA and RA in amnesia (“no RA without AA”) – but there are exceptions • Selective (focal) retrograde amnesia Docsity.com