Motivation and Theories - Instinct theory of motivation, Slides of Introduction to Psychology

Download Motivation and Theories - Instinct theory of motivation and more Slides Introduction to Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! 1 1 Motivation Chapter 11 Psy12000.003 2 What Motivates You To Come To Class? 3 Motivation Motivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal. What’s the difference between a need and a desire? Extrinsic motivation is something outside the person that energizes behavior. Money, fame, power Intrinsic motivation is something within the person that energizes behavior. Interest, curiosity, personal challenge and improvement 4 Do Rats Have a Protestant Work Ethic? •  The earned vs. free food phenomenon 5 Perspectives on Motivation Perspectives to explain motivation include the following:   Instinct Theory   Drive-Reduction Theory   Arousal Theory   Hierarchy of Motives   Cognitive based theory: Self- efficacy 6 Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology Instincts are complex behaviors that have fixed patterns throughout different species and are not learned (Tinbergen, 1951). Where the woman builds different kinds of houses the bird builds only one kind of nest. © A riel Skelley/ M asterfile Tony B randenburg/ B ruce C olem an, Inc. 2 7 Drive-Reduction Theory When the instinct theory of motivation failed to explain most human motivation, it was replaced by the drive-reduction theory. A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need (Hull, 1951). 8 Drive Reduction Food Drive Reduction Organism The physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis, the maintenance of a steady internal state (e.g., maintenance of steady body temperature). Stomach Full Empty Stomach (Food Deprived) 9 Incentive Where our needs push, incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives. Henry Murray called these needs and presses. A food-deprived person (n Hunger) who smells baking bread (incentive) (p Food) feels a strong hunger drive. 10 Question •  What need would explain why we seek thrills, excitement? •  Why do we like scary movies? •  What drives are being reduced by going on a roller coaster or parachuting? 11 Optimum Arousal Human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of arousal, not to eliminate it. Young monkeys and children are known to explore the environment in the absence of a need-based drive. H arlow Prim ate Laboratory, U niversity of W isconsin R andy Faris/ C orbis 12 Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that certain needs have priority over others. Physiological needs like breathing, thirst, and hunger come before psychological needs such as achievement, self-esteem, and the need for recognition. (1908-1970) 5 25 The Importance of Glucose: C6H12O6 Increases in insulin (a hormone affecting pancreas, liver, muscle, and fat tissue) decreases glucose in the blood. Decreased glucose makes us feel hungry. Glucose Molecule Insulin also affects brain: improves verbal memory 26 Glucose & the Brain Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, and intestines. They send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain. Rat Hypothalamus 27 Hypothalamic Centers The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger (stimulation). Destroy the LH, and the animal has no interest in eating. With the LH intact, the reduction of blood glucose leads rats to eat ravenously. 28 Hypothalamic Centers The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses hunger (when stimulated). If you destroy the VMH, the animal eats excessively. 29 Hypothalamus & Hormones The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones that are related to hunger. Hormone Tissue Response Orexin increase Hypothalamus Increases hunger Ghrelin increase Stomach Increases hunger Insulin increase Pancreas Increases hunger Leptin increase Fat cells Decreases hunger PPY increase Digestive tract Decreases hunger 30 Set-Point Theory Manipulating the lateral and the ventromedial hypothalamus alters the body’s “weight thermostat.” If weight is lost, food intake increases and energy expenditure decreases. If weight is gained, the opposite takes place. 6 31 The Psychology of Hunger Memory plays an important role in hunger. When did I eat last? Due to difficulties with retention, amnesia patients eat frequently if given food (Rozin et al., 1998). Schachter found that manipulating a clock on the wall influenced reports of hunger, and willingness to eat. Social Factors •  We eat when others eat whether we are hungry or not; we tend not to like eating alone (especially females) •  Females eat less with a male than they eat with a female. (Males are unaffected) •  Current investigation here at Purdue examining whether fat rats will regulate their intake when in the presence of skinny rats. 32 33 Taste Preference: Biology or Culture? Body chemistry and environmental factors influence not only when we feel hunger but what we feel hungry for! Fullness doesn’t necessarily mean you don’t want to eat anything else. It often means, “I am tired of that particular taste.” R ichard O lsenius/ B lack Star V ictor Englebert 34 Hot Cultures like Hot Spices Countries with hot climates use more bacteria- inhibiting spices in meat dishes. 35 Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa: A condition in which a normal- weight person (usually an adolescent woman) continuously loses weight but still feels overweight. R eprinted by perm ission of The N ew England Journal of M edicine, 207, (O ct 5, 1932), 613-617. Lisa O ’C onnor/ Zum a/ C orbis 36 Is the Relationship between Eating and Weight Gain That Simple? 7 37 Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa: A disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, using laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise. 38 Obesity http://w w w.cyberdiet.com A disorder characterized by being excessively overweight. Obesity increases the risk for health issues like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, and back problems. 39 Reasons for Eating Disorders   Sexual Abuse Myth: Childhood sexual abuse does not cause eating disorders.   Family: Younger generations develop eating disorders when raised in families in which weight is an excessive concern.   Genetics: Twin studies show that eating disorders are more likely to occur in identical twins rather than fraternal twins.   Social: Advertising/peer pressure/norms. 40 Body Image (Women) Western culture tends to place more emphasis on a thin body image in comparison to other cultures. 41 Summary Sexual Motivation 42 10 55 Adolescent Sexuality When individuals reach adolescence, their sexual behavior develops. However, there are cultural differences. Sexual promiscuity in modern Western culture is much greater than in Arab countries and other Asian countries. 56 Contraception   Ignorance: Canadian teen girls do not have the right ideas about birth control methods.   Guilt Related to Sexual Activity: Guilt reduces sexual activity, but it also reduces the use of contraceptives.   Minimal Communication: Many teenagers feel uncomfortable about discussing contraceptives.   Alcohol Use: Those who use alcohol prior to sex are less likely to use contraceptives.   Mass Media: The media’s portrayal of unsafe extramarital sex decreases the use of contraceptives. 57 Sexually Transmitted Infections   High Intelligence: Teens with higher intelligence are likely to delay sex.   Religiosity: Religious teens and adults often reserve sex for a marital commitment.   Father Presence: A father’s absence from home can contribute to higher teen sexual activity.   Learning Programs: Teens who volunteer and tutor in programs dedicated to reducing teen pregnancy are less likely to engage in unsafe sex. Correlational studies reveal factors that reduce sexual activity in teens. 58 Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex, the other sex, and/or either sex. Homosexual Heterosexual Bisexual 59 Sexual Orientation Statistics In Europe and America, based on many national surveys, homosexuality in men is 3-4% and in women is 1-2%. As members of a minority, homosexuals often struggle with their sexual orientation. 60 Origins of Sexual Orientation Homosexuality is more likely based on biological factors like differing brain centers, genetics, and parental hormone exposure rather than environmental factors. Homosexual parents C ynthia Johnson/ Tim e m agazine 11 61 Animal Homosexuality A number of animal species are devoted to same-sex partners, suggesting that homosexuality exists in the animal world. Wendell and Cass D avid H ecker/ A FP/ G etty Im ages 62 The Brain In homosexual men, the size of the anterior hypothalamus is smaller (LeVay, 1991) and the anterior commissure is larger (Allen & Gorski, 1992). Again, this is correlational. Anterior Hypothalamus Anterior Commissure ht tp :// w w w. m su .e du 63 Genes & Sexual Orientation A number of reasons suggest that homosexuality may be due to genetic factors.   Family: Homosexuality seems to run in families.   Twin studies: Homosexuality is more common in identical twins than fraternal twins. However, there are mixed results.   Fruit flies: Genetic engineers can genetically manipulate females to act like males during courtship and males to act like females. 64 Hormones & Sexual Orientation Prenatal hormones affect sexual orientation during critical periods of fetal development.   Animals: Exposure of a fetus to testosterone results in females (sheep) exhibiting homosexual behavior.   Humans: Exposure of a male or female fetus to female hormones results in an attraction to males. Heterosexual male Homosexual Heterosexual female 65 Sexual Orientation: Biology 66 Changing Attitudes 12 67 Sex and Human Values “Promiscuous recreational sex poses certain psychological, social, health, and moral problems that must be faced realistically” (Baumrind, 1982). A ndreanna Seym ore/ G etty Im ages 68 The Need to Belong “[Man] is a social animal,” (Aristotle). Separation from others increases our need to belong. “Cast Away,” Tom Hanks, suffers from social starvation. 20 th C entury Fox/ D ream w orks/ The K obal C ollection 69 Aiding Survival Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survival rates. These bonds led to the following:   Protecting against predators, especially for the young.   Procuring food.   Reproducing the next offspring. 70 Belongingness   Wanting to Belong: The need to belong influences our thinking and emotions.   Social Acceptance: A sense of belonging with others increases our self-esteem. Social exclusion decreases it.   Maintaining Relationships: We resist breaking social bonds, even bad ones.   Exclusion: Social exclusion leads to demoralization, depression, and when reinclusion seems unlikely, nasty behavior.   Fortifying Health: People who tend to have close friends are happier and healthier. 71 Motivation at Work The healthy life, said Sigmund Freud, is filled by love and work. C ulver Pictures 72 Attitudes Towards Work   Job: Necessary way to make money.   Career: Opportunity to advance from one position to another.   Calling: Fulfilling a socially useful activity. People have different attitudes toward work. Some take it as a: