Intentional Teaching: Motivating Students and Adapting to Their Needs, Study notes of Psychology

Download Intentional Teaching: Motivating Students and Adapting to Their Needs and more Study notes Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! Educational Psychology 2060 Page 1 Chapter 1 Educational Psychology: A Foundation for Teaching PREFACE 1. “Intentional Teaching” - emphasis on “back to basics”, which requires to plan outcomes and teach purposefully. One characteristic of all outstanding teachers is “intentionality”, or the ability to do things for a reason, purposefully. They constantly think about the outcomes they want for their students and how each decision they make moves students toward those outcomes. No matter what their philosophical orientations, experienced teachers know that they must be proficient in a wide range of methods and must use them with intentionality. The “intentional teacher” constantly reflects on her practices and makes instructional decisions based on a clear conception of how these practices affect students. Effective teaching is neither “tricks” nor “principles”; it is intelligent application of well-understood principles to address practical needs. 2. “Cognitive Revolution” - is currently transforming educational psychology and teaching. 3. Concept Map (page xix) addresses 3 principle themes: Students / Teaching / Learning HYPOTHETICAL TEACHING SCENARIO: Teaching Creative Writing 1. Use Motivational Strategies, such as (1) reading them funny & intriguing stories to arouse their curiosity, (2) let them write about whatever interests them (video games, being Jewish, hunting, etc.), (3) have ‘writing celebrations’ in which students read their finished compositions to the class for applause & comments. 2. Adapt to Students Needs by (1) conferencing with students & helping them with specific problems they’re having, and (2) using “cooperative learning groups” to let students give each other immediate feedback on their writing, model effective writing, and encourage each other to write. 3. Use a Flexible Form of Evaluation: Every person gets an “A” on his composition, but only when it meets a high standard, which may take many drafts. USING YOUR EXPERIENCE Creative Thinking: Brainstorm about what educational psychology is and what I will learn this semester. The more ideas, the better! Discuss with others & build on their ideas. What Makes a Good Teacher? 1. Knowing the Subject Matters--(But So Does Teaching Skill) Knowing the subject matter is not enough!! An effective teacher must know how to communicate the knowledge to her students. The ability to communicate knowledge goes far beyond simply knowing the facts! 2. Mastering the Teaching Skills The link between what the teacher wants students to learn and students’ actual learning is called instruction, or pedagogy. “The tasks” include: motivating students, managing the classroom, assessing prior knowledge, communicating ideas effectively, taking into account the characteristics of the learners, assessing learning outcomes, and reviewing information. It is the successful accomplishment of all the tasks of teaching that makes for instructional effectiveness; ie. warmth, enthusiasm, caring, knowledge of subject matter, and pedagogy. Educational Psychology 2060 Page 2 3. Can Good Teaching Be Taught? Yes! An outstanding teacher doesn’t do anything other teachers can’t do--it is just a question of knowing the principles of effective teaching and how to apply them, such as principles of classroom management. *Example: Teacher walks in the direction of 2 students who are not paying attention, and they stop talking. Principle = Maintain momentum in the lesson, deal with behavior problems by using the mildest intervention that will work, and resolve minor problems before they become major ones. *Example: Teaching a difficult, abstract concept (negative & positive numbers). Make abstract ideas concrete by using more examples (digging a hole), relate the content of instruction to the students’ background, state rules, give examples, and then restate rules. The major concepts of effective instruction (figure 1.1): _____________________________________________________________________________________ Knowledge of subject Decision Critical thinking & & teaching resources Making problem-solving skills / / / Self-Knowledge & GOOD Self-Regulation ----------------------> TEACHING ----------------------- Reflection / / / Application of Education Research Knowledge of students Teaching & & their learning communication skills _____________________________________________________________________________________ 4. The Intentional Teacher One attribute seems to be characteristic of outstanding teachers: intentionality. It means they do things for a reason, on purpose. They are constantly thinking about the outcomes they want for their students and how each decision affects those outcomes. Maximum learning does not happen by chance! Research shows that one of the most powerful predictors of a teacher’s impact on students is the belief that what he or she does makes a difference; this is called teacher efficacy. It is at the heart of what it means to be an intentional teacher! An intentional teacher achieves efficacy by constantly assessing her results, trying new strategies, seeking ideas from colleagues/books/internet, etc to enrich & solidify her teaching skills. Expert teachers are critical thinkers! Critical-thinking skills for teaching involve having a logical and systematic approach to the many dilemmas that are found in practice and research. Teachers who get better every year are those who are open to new ideas and who look at their own teaching critically. Educational Psychology 2060 Page 5 researching a car would help prepare you to make a wise choice before purchasing one. Be a consumer of relevant research. (Consult my textbooks, familiarize myself with professional journals in my field, network with other teachers--face to face and via the Internet.) Be an intentional teacher. (When I take action, be purposeful and think about what I’m doing. Follow my actions with careful reflection. Formulate a “working hypothesis”: observe, collect data, organize & analyze the data, draw conclusions, take action.) Share your experiences. (Share my successes with others by publishing articles in newsletters or professional journals, give presentations at my school or school board, or share findings via the Internet.  Self Check INTASC Standard 9: Reflection and Professional Development. A teacher must be a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of choices and actions on others, including students, parents, and other professionals in the community, and who actively seeks out opportunities for professional growth. 1. How does Leah (vignette 1) evaluate the effects of her instructional choices on her students? - She sees her students’ enthusiasm and eagerness to participate, willingness to work with other students, and forward progress (grade-wise). She receives positive feedback from a co-worker (Ellen). Her objective (to have the students produce effective, imaginative essays) was accomplished. 2. What connections are there between a reflective practitioner and an intentional teacher? - A reflective practitioner, such as Leah, continually evaluates the results of her students, and is always building toward her final goal (writing imaginative, challenging essays). The intentional teacher, such as Leah, purposefully evaluates every step of her progress to ensure that the final goal will be met--that each student is successful. The intentional teacher is reflective; the two go hand in hand. 3. From Leah’s discussions with Ellen, create a list of research-based and common-sense strategies that an intentional teacher might use. - Use motivational strategies such as: reading funny & intriguing stories from other classes to increase curiosity; allowing students to choose topics they are interested in; having ‘writing celebrations‘ for praise and constructive critiques. - Adapt to the students’ needs by conferencing with students to discuss problem areas; and using a flexible form of evaluation. - Use cooperative learning groups to give students immediate feedback; to allow students to model effective writing for each other; to encourage each other to write; to help solve management issues by keeping students on task. - Adapt to students’ developmental levels and cultural styles by encouraging them to write about things that matter to them. - Be willing to discuss successes or failures with other colleagues. - Attend workshops or seminars to learn how to improve your teaching skills. What Research Methods Are Used in Educational Psychology? The principle methods educational researchers use to learn about schools, teachers, students, and instruction are experiments, correlational studies, and descriptive research. While researchers study school, teachers, or students as they are, sometimes they create treatments (special Educational Psychology 2060 Page 6 programs), and study their effects on one or more variables (anything that can have more than one value: sex, age, achievement level, attitude). 1. Experiments Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett (1973) - An experiment was conducted where an experimental group received a “treatment” (prize) for their performance (drawing pictures with felt-tipped markers). A control group received no “treatment”. All variables were exactly the same in both experiments, except for the treatment. After the experiment, the children were allowed to choose an activity. The children who were not given a prize chose to continue to draw with felt-tipped pens twice as frequently as children who were given a prize. Conclusion: rewarding individuals for doing a task they already like can reduce their interest in doing the task when they were no longer rewarded. NOTE: the subjects were randomly assigned to ensure that the groups were equivalent. Therefore, the goal is to be sure that the “treatment”, not the assignment, explained the difference between the groups. LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS (Experiment is done in an artificial setting so that special treatments can be created and results can be analyzed.) Lepper et al 1973 is an example of a laboratory experiment, even though it took place in a school, not a laboratory. Advantage = researchers can exert a very high degree of control over all factors involved. Such studies are high in internal validity (we can contribute the differences to the “treatments” rather than to other factors). Limitation = the brief, artificial setting may produce results that have little relevance to real--life situations. Later, experiments done later in a real classrooms using real rewards (grades, stars), have generally failed to find such effects. This simply shows that theories based on artificial lab experiments can’t be assumed to apply to all real life situations. RANDOMIZED FIELD EXPERIMENTS (Instructional programs are evaluated over relatively long periods in real classes under realistic conditions.) Pinnell, Lyons, DeFord, Bryk, and Seltzer (1994) - A “Reading Recovery” experiment was done on 1st graders who were at risk for failure. The experimental group was assigned to a “one-to-one tutoring” model; whereas, the control group continued their regularly assigned remedial services. After 4 months and again after 8 more months, the experimental group scored higher on reading scores. This means that the external validity (real-life validity) was far greater than the Lepper et al study, and the study has had direct relevance to reading instruction for at-risk 1st graders. While both types of experiments are useful, lab experiments are primarily important in efforts to build and test theories; whereas, randomized field experiments are the truest way to evaluate practical programs or improvements in instruction. SINGLE-CASE EXPERIMENTS (The behavior of a single student, a class, or a group of students is observed for several days; a new program is introduced & the students’ behavior is observed; then the program is withdrawn. If behavior improved while the program was being used, then digresses when the program is removed, we conclude that the program affected their behavior.) Barrish, Saunders, and Wolf (1969) - Students were rewarded for good behavior (not talking out during math class). They were divided into two teams, and were given marks if they misbehaved. The team with the least number of marks at the end of the day was rewarded with a 30 minute recess. When the game Educational Psychology 2060 Page 7 was withdrawn, poor behavior increased. But better behavior increased when the game was reintroduced. 2. Correlational Studies This is the most frequently used research method in educational psychology. The researcher studies variables “as they are” to see whether or not they are related. Variables that have positive correlation (high levels of one variable correspond to high levels of another, such as: a good math student is often good in other subjects, too); negative correlation (high levels of one variable correspond to low levels of another, such as: poor grades and lots of absences); and uncorrelated variables (totally unrelated, such as: student achievement in one school is unrelated to student motivation in another school) are used. The main disadvantage = while we may find out that two variables are related, we don’t know what causes what. For example, does student attentiveness cause high achievement? Or, are high achievers simply more attentive? 3. Descriptive Research “Descriptive research” simply seeks to describe something of interest. An example is a survey or interview. Another type, ethnography, involves observation of a social setting (like a classroom or school) over an extended period of time. Developmental psychologists often use descriptive research to identify characteristics of children at different ages. The most famous example was done by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1952b), when he observed his own children and developed a theory that describes the cognitive development of children from infancy through adolescence. 4. Action Research This is a form of research done by educators in their own classrooms or schools. A new teaching method is introduced; information is collected about how well it worked; results are communicated with others. While it lacks objectivity, it is highly beneficial because it is done by those ‘on the front line’ as opposed to being done by outsiders.  Self Check INTASC STANDARD 8: Assessment. A teacher must be able to use formal and informal assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social, and physical development of the students. 1. Construct a comparison chart with the columns headed Experimental, Correlational, Descriptive, and Action. Enter information in the following categories: Goals of Research, Forms Studies Take, Kinds of Finds, Advantages and Disadvantages, and Examples.