Lecture Notes on Child Development: From Infancy to School Age - Prof. Robert Billingham, Study notes of Physical Education and Motor Learning

Download Lecture Notes on Child Development: From Infancy to School Age - Prof. Robert Billingham and more Study notes Physical Education and Motor Learning in PDF only on Docsity! Lecture Notes Tuesday 2-02-10 02/11/2010
2/2/10 F150 Notes

Society affects how children are raised
Pick up baby for it to survive  If not picked up then it dies o Abandonment (happened often in 1952-1972 = 10% of babies)  Infanticide  Abandon cite (safe drop)  Adoption
Oxytocin – associated with attachment; hormone highly associated with parenting behavior  Peak at orgasm and childbirth
Baby cries to get someone to pick it up
Baby needs: food, water, shelter, and touch to survive
Once bonded, hard to unattach child from parents, even if quality of life sucks
Baby recognizes familiar faces and smells (can differentiate)  Has no concept of mother
Attachment is a survival mechanism
Adult attachment is primarily psychological
If there is a maternal instinct, then choices would not exist!
Attachment theory  Ethology is concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history  Pre-attachment phase (birth-6 weeks) o Variety of built in signals help bring newborns into close contact with other human beings  “Attachment-in-the-making” phase (6 weeks – 6 to 8 months) o infants begin to respond differently to familiar vs. unfamiliar people  “clear-cut” attachment (6 to 8 months – 18 months to 2 years) o separation anxiety becomes apparent  formation of reciprocal relationships (18 months to 2 years and on) o stranger anxiety become apparent o rapid development helps infant to understand reasons for departure and returns
Lecture Notes Thursday 2-11-10 02/11/2010
Test moved to Tuesday 23, 2010
Test covers Chapters 7-10
o Woman is born with all the ova she is going to have, hence greater cumulative effect on the ovum with bad environment o Women are more sensitive to pain throughout development than men are, but women have a greater pain tolerance than men do.

In Birth
Babies breathe oxygenated salt water; contractions help move the water out of the lungs
C-section babies are more prone to respiratory problems later in life

Hearing
During last trimester of pregnancy, a baby can hear mother’s muffled voice and the sounds of her heartbeat, breathing, and digestion
Baby has mucus plug that dribbles out of the ear

Sight
Upon birth, babies exhibit a protective reflex of tightly shutting their eyes against bright light (blinking reflex)
Newborn can see well at a distance of 8 to 12 inches from the bridge of their nose
Newborn can’t adjust his eyes to clearly see images closer than 8 inches or farther away than 12 inches
The ability of both eyes to focus on the same image is essential to the development of depth perception
Color vision is immature at birth, but color discrimination is learned early, starting with yellow and ending with blue

Touch
Most poorly developed sense at birth

Taste
Taste and smell are intertwined
The most highly developed sense at birth is taste
3 different possible tastes  tip of tongue  sweet o things that taste sweet don’t usually kill us o You can use the tip of your tongue to tell if something is good or not  Sides of tongue  salty and sour  Back of tongue  bitter
Nursing
Colostrum is in breast milk, and helps support babies immune system
Breast feeding is learned

Smell
Taste and smell are intertwined Smell alone can change a biological system (synchronizing menstrual cycles) Arguably the most highly developed sense at birth is smell
Lecture Notes Tuesday 2-16-10 02/11/2010
People grow up around others who are similar to them neighborhood effect
When children start school the kids are in a school environment  If public, parents start to lose control over child’s socialization  The larger community (school board, teachers, state school boards, other children) compete with the family for the socialization

Charles Darwin (1859) origin of the species  Concept of evolution through sexual selectivity influenced Sigmund Freud  Biological mechanism that helps species survive

Sigmund Freud: Stages of Development  Oral Stage (birth-18 months): Fixation on oral pleasure, it is how they learn

Erikson: must be some way to explain how Hitler happened  Was acquainted with Anna Freud and with Sigmund Freud’s teachings
Stage 1 Oral Stage: Basic Trust vs. Mistrust  F – P > C
S P > C
Stage 2: Anal Stage: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (18 months-3years)  Child tells us that they view themselves as being different from you, by saying no and defying you  Child Shows autonomy, they go and get what they want  Child is in conflict with what they want to do, and what society tells them to do (e.g. potty training is forced by parents and parents are forced by society) CHAPTER 7 02/11/2010 VOCAB: 1. Zone of Proximal Development: Helping children with tasks that are a little too hard for them to accomplish alone 2. Preoperational Period: Storage of cognitive development typified by an egocentric view of the world 3. Reversibility: Refers to a child’s failure to recognize that operations an be turned back to an earlier state 4. Anaphylaxis: Life-threatening allergy 5. Morphology: The term used when a word changes form 6. Pragmatics: the types of language that can be used in different social contexts 7. Theory of Mind: The ability to understand that others see the world differently from oneself 8. Intelligence: A global capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and cope resourcefully with the challenges of life 9. Egocentrism: A lack of awareness that there are viewpoints other than one’s own 10. Two-factor Theory of Intelligence: A theory which concludes that there is a general intellectual ability employed for abstract reasoning and problem solving 11. Semantics: Deals with the meaning of words as well as the rules for combining words together meaningfully 12. Metamemory: Individuals’ awareness and understanding of their memory process 13. Metacognition: Individuals’’ awareness and understanding of their own mental processes 14. Asperger’s Syndrome: A mild form of autism 15. Receptive Language: Language that can be understood 16. Syntax: Refers to the way that words must be ordered in a sentence 17. Conservation: The recognition that the quality or amount of something stays the same despite changes in appearance 18. Centration: The process whereby preoperational children concentrate on one feature of a situation and neglect other aspects 19. Short-term Memory: The retention of information for a very brief period, usually not more than 30 seconds 20. Long-term Memory: The retention of information for an extended period of time 21. Memory: The retention of what has been experienced 22. Phonology: The stage of language development where children move beyond two- word sentences, begin to display real understanding of the rules governing language, and begin to master the different sounds within the language 23. Sensory Information Storage: When information from the senses is preserved in the sensory register just long enough to permit the stimuli to be scanned for processing, generally less than two seconds. 24. Intelligence Quotient: Ratio of mental over chronological age 25. Multiple Intelligences: Nine distinct abilities that interact 26. Private Speech: Speech directed to oneself, or to nobody 27. Recall: Remembering previous information 28. Reciprocity: Child’s capacity to attach meaning to a current situation from previous situation 29. Rehearsal: Process of repeating information to oneself THEORISTS: 1. Jean Piaget: a. Preoperational Period i. Study of children’s cognitive development ii. Years between 2-7 iii. A child increases the capacity to represent the external world internally through the use of symbols, such as words and numbers iv. Preoperational children operate from egocentrism, are absorbed in their own feelings and thoughts, and are often not able to recognize others’ thoughts and feelings b. Argument on Moral Reasoning: i. Children’s moral reasoning evolves and begins with reciprocity of attitudes and values ii. The ability to recall thoughts and feelings from memory makes moral thought possible iii. As young children mature, they come to know more about attitudes, values, and the “rules” of accepted behavior
2. Neo-Piagetians: Prosocial Behavior a. Young children have more reasoning capabilities and show evidence of prosocial behaviors 2. Howard Gardener: Theory of Multiple Intelligences a. Children have different strengths and weaknesses in their intelligence systems and that education should instruct to accommodate different kinds of intelligence
4. Les Vygotsky: The Zone of Proximal Development a. with help from a more skilled partner, children master tasks that are too hard to accomplish alone 5. Kohlberg: Preconventional Stage a. First stage of moral development b. Young children are obedient to authority from fear of threat or punishment c. Young children are egocentric and unable to see the perspective of others Theory of Mind a. Focused on children’s understanding of their own thought processes b. From ages 2 to 6 children gain a clearer understanding of their world, people’s actions, their own thought processes, number concepts, and causality of events
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH CONCERNS  Warmth: affectionate, accepting, approving, understanding, and child-centered behaviors. When disciplining, parents use explanations, words of encouragement, and praise  Hostility: cold, rejecting, disapproving, self-centered, and highly punitive behaviors  leads to interference with development of conscience and breeds aggressiveness and resistance to authority 2. Control or Autonomy Dimension of the disciplinary approach  Control: with restrictive parenting, it can lead to child dependency and interference with independence training

Combination of Parenting Approaches  Warm but Restrictive Parenting: leads to politeness, neatness, obedience, and conformity. Potentially immaturity, dependency, low creativity, blind acceptance of authority, and social withdrawal and ineptness  Warm with Democratic Procedures: leads to socially competent, resourceful, friendly, active, and appropriately aggressive individuals. Potentially self-reliant creative, goal-oriented, and responsible behavior if parents encourage independence and mastery in social and academic situations. Potentially permissiveness and self-indulgent children with little impulse control if parents fail to foster independence  Hostile (Rejecting) and Restrictive Parenting: Interferes with the child’s developing sense of identity and self-esteem. Children see the world as dominated by powerful, malignant forces over which they have no control. It fosters resentment and inner rage. Can result in neurotic problems, self- punishing, and suicidal tendencies, depressed affect, and inadequacy in adult role-playing  Hostile and Permissive Parenting: Associated with delinquent and aggressive behavior in children. Rejection breeds resentment and hostility, which when combined with inadequate parental control, can be translated into aggressive and antisocial actions. If parents discipline, it is usually physical, capricious, and severe. 3. Consistency or Inconsistency Dimension that parents show in using discipline PARENTING STYLES 1. Authoritarian Parenting: attempts to shape, control and evaluate a child’s behavior in accordance with traditional and absolute values and standards of conduct. Obedience is stressed, verbal give-and-take is discouraged, and punitive, forceful discipline is preferred. Parents are said to use rejecting-demanding dimension. Children tend to be discontented, withdrawn, and distrustful. 2. Authoritative Parenting: Firm direction for a child’s overall activities but gives the child considerable freedom within reasonable limits. Control is not rigid, punitive, intrusive, or unnecessarily restrictive. Parents provide reasons for given policies and engage in verbal give-and-take with the child. Children are usually self-reliant, self- controlled, explorative, and contented children. Children have comfortable supported feelings while they explore the environment and gain interpersonal competence. 3. Permissive Parenting: Nonpunitive, accepting, and affirmative environment in which the children regulate their own behaviors as much as possible. The children are consulted about family policies and decisions. Parents make few demands on the children for household responsibilities or orderly behaviors. Children are least self-reliant, explorative, and self-controlled. 4. Harmonious Parenting: Attempt to cultivate and egalitarian relationship, one in which the child is not placed at a power disadvantage. Parents emphasize humane values as opposed to the predominantly materialistic and achievement values operating within mainstream society. The girls were competent, independent, friendly, achievement- oriented, and intelligent. The boys were cooperative but submissive, dependent, and not achievement-oriented. Baumrind: Distinguishes among authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and harmonious parenting  Found a number of parental practices and attitudes that seem to facilitate the development of socially responsible and independent behavior in children: 1. Parents who are socially responsible and assertive and who serve as daily models of these behaviors foster these characteristics in their children 2. Parents should use firm enforcement policies to reward socially responsible and independent behavior and to punish deviant behavior. This parenting technique uses the reinforcement principles of conditioning. Parents can be even more effective in their demands are accompanied by explanations and if punishment is accompanied by reasons that are consistent with principles the parents themselves live by. 3. Parents who are accepting are more attractive models and reinforcing agents than rejecting parents 4. Parents should emphasize and encourage individuality, self- expression, initiative, divergent thinking, and socially appropriate assertiveness. These values are translated into daily realities as parents make demands upon their children and assign them responsibility 14. Inclusion: The integration of students with special needs within the regular classroom programs of the school 15. Limited English Proficiency: The legal term for students who were not born in the United States or whose native language is not English and who cannot participate effectively in the regular school curriculum because they have difficulty speaking, understanding, reading, and writing English 16. Moral Development: The process by which children adopt principles that lead them to evaluate given behaviors as "right" and others as "wrong" and to govern their own actions in terms of these principles 17. Prosocial Behaviors: Ways of responding to other people through sympathetic, cooperative, helpful, rescuing, comforting, and giving acts 18. Autonomous Morality: An egalitarian morality based on respect and cooperation 19. ELL (English Language Learners): Students who cannot participate effectively due to language restrictions 20. ESL Approach: Teaching children English as quickly and efficiently as possible 21. Heteronomous Morality: Morality based on absolute moral rules 22. Mental Retardation: Disability in individuals having lower than average mental functions and adaptive skills THEORISTS:  Piaget: o Period of Concrete Operations  Qualitative change in children’s thinking during middle childhood as children begin to develop a set of rules or strategies for examining the world  Children develop conservation skills in a fixed sequence  Numbers (5-7)  Substance (7-8)  Length (7-8)  Area (8-9)  Weight (9-10)  Volume (12-14) o Theory on Moral Development by cognitive-development  There is an orderly and logical pattern in the development of children’s moral judgments  Development is based on the sequential changes associated with children’s intellectual growth, especially the stages that are characterized by the emergence of logical thought  Portrayed children as active participants in their own moral development and are dynamically interactive in their environment. (opposed cognitive moral development theorists: environment acts on and modifies children, and children are passive recipients of environmental forces. Children learn from their environment)  Kohlberg: There is universal morality o Theory of development of values and moral judgment  Preconventional Level  Stage 1:  X shouldn’t steal because he might be caught and go to jail  X should steal because he wants it  Stage 2  Theft is justified because his wife needs it and X needs his wife’s companionship in life  Theft is condemned because his wife will probably die before X gets out of jail, so it will not do him much good  Conventional Level  Stage 3  X is unselfish in looking after the needs of his wife  X will feel bad thinking of how he brought dishonor on his family; his family will be ashamed of the act  Stage 4  Theft is justified because X would otherwise have been responsible for his wife’s death  Theft is condemned because X is a lawbreaker  Postconventional Level  Stage 5  Theft is justified because the law was not fashioned for situations in which an individual would forfeit life by obeying the rules  Theft is condemned because others may also have great need  Stage 6  Theft is justified because X would not have lived up to the standards of his conscience if he allowed his wife to die  Theft is condemned because X did not live up to the standards of his conscience when he engaged in stealing  Carol Gilligan: Stated that Freud’s, Piaget’s, and Kohlberg’s moral theories capture men’s but not women’s moral development. o Men have morality of justice o Women have morality of care  Vera John-Steiner’s: o Creativity


PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT:  Cognitive developmental theorists conceive of moral development as taking place in sequential stages, with clear-cut changes distinguishing one stage from the next. With differing views of moral values across cultures, their theories might now apply  A number of researchers have attempted to specify which personal and situational factors are most closely associated with moral behavior. Biological, intelligence, age, and sex differences play only a small part in moral conduct. Group codes and motivational factors have a much larger role  Moral development involves much more than simply learning prohibitions against misbehavior. It also involves acquiring prosocial behaviors. Schools, churches, and community organizations promote healthy moral development through various character education programs.

CHAPTER 10 02/11/2010 VOCAB: 1. PTSD: A disorder that may exhibit a variety of symptoms including numbing and helplessness, increased irritability and aggressiveness, extreme anxiety, panic and fears, exaggerated startle response, sleep disturbances, and bed wetting 2. Prejudice: A system of negative conceptions, feelings, and action orientations regarding the members of a particular religious, racial, or nationality group 3. Anxiety: A state of uneasiness or apprehension 4. Bullying: Deliberate, repeated aggressive behavior involving a power imbalance 5. Intrinsic Motivation: Activity that is undertaken for its own sake 6. Extrinsic Motivation: activity that is undertaken for some purpose other than its own sake 7. Phobia: An excessive, persistent, and maladaptive fear response—usually to benign or ill-defined stimuli 8. Locus of Control: An important moderator of an individual's experience of stress; people's perception of who or what is responsible for the outcome of events and behaviors in their lives 9. Fear: An unpleasant emotion aroused by impending danger, pain, or misfortune 10. Motivation: Inner states and processes that prompt, direct, and sustain activity 11. Educational Self-fulfilling Prophecies: Teacher expectation effects whereby some children fail to learn because those charged with teaching them do not believe they will learn 12. Values: The criteria used in deciding the relative merit and desirability of things 13. Industry vs. Inferiority: The fourth stage of the life cycle when children in middle childhood become interested in how things were made or how they work 14. Self Image: The overall view that children have of themselves 15. Coping: The responses we make in order to master, tolerate, or reduce stress 16. Gender Cleavage: The tendency for boys to associate with boys and girls with girls 17. Group: Two or more people who share a feeling of unity and are bound together in relatively stable patterns of social interaction 18. Self-Esteem: A favorable evaluation of self THEORISTS: THE QUEST FOR SELF-UNDERSTANDING: 1. Erikson’s Stage of Industry vs. Inferiority: Psychosocial Model of development, children in middle childhood experience the fourth stage of the life cycle: Industry vs. Inferiority  Children desire to try many new things and to develop their abilities  Those who are prevented from trying new activities, don’t get the opportunity to try, or don’t experience success in comparison to the group are likely to develop low self-esteem 2. Self-Image: self-concept is a domain-specific assessment that children make about themselves. Praise or belittlement is commonly internalized and a child will see themselves as good or bad 3. Self-Esteem: Children acquire positive, healthy self-esteem if they are accepted, approved, and respected 4. Self-Regulated Behaviors: In expanded social settings, children must learn to regulate their own emotions to get along with the group. The peer group typically rejects children who cannot self-regulate their behaviors 5. Understanding Emotion and Coping with Anger, Fear, Stress, and Trauma: Anger, Fear, anxiety, and stress play an important part in the lives of young children. Generally, girls experience more fears, anxiety, and stress than boys—especially as they enter middle school years. All children experience stressful situations in response to perceived threats or dangers, yet they can learn coping strategies to deal with stress. Two important aspects of coping with stress are a child’s own sense of mastery and locus of control  Developmental Fears: i. Preschool Children: Fears of being left alone and imaginary fears—of darkness, large animals, and monsters