Soil Formation and Properties: A Comprehensive Overview - Prof. Arthur Hopkins, Study notes of Geography

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Term Soils Definition ** fine material covering the earth's surface composed of both mineral & organic material; dirt ** weathering provides the raw materials (parent material) for soil formation & development Term soil profile Definition the array of soil layers; their sequence from top (surface) to bottom (bedrock) Term soil horizon Definition a distinct layer of soil within the soil profile Term soil properties Definition -color: can give you an idea of minerals -texture (clay, sand, silt) -structure: how well water soaks through -consistence (cohesion) -porosity -moisture Term soil formation Definition on ongoing process of a renewable source, but not an inexhausible one Term minerals Definition elements of compounds with a crystalline structure; the building blocks of rocks; found in all soils Term organic matter Definition the part originally from living matter; decaying mmatter of plants, animals, and their waste products Term water Definition fills spaces in the soil or forms a thin film around particles Term Definition also fills pore spaces air Term parent material Definition the type of rock and minerals the soil was formed from Term residual soil Definition made from the underlying rock Term transported soil Definition made from material not found in underlying rock Term climate Definition if temperature and precipitation differ, will yield different soils, even from the same parent material Term biological agents Definition decomposers, microorganisms, bateria, fungi, type of humus or organic material Term topography Definition flat vs. steep slopes, windward versus leeward slopes; sun exposure; wetter=thicker; south is usually drier Term time Definition longer that a soil has to develop, generally the thicker it will be Term addition Definition grains of soil made by adding material to the soil already in place; adding organic matter Term transformation Definition weathering of rock, minerals, & soil particles already present; physically or chemically changing them ** ex: dark brown to black soils == high organic content Red or orangish soils == high Fe and/or Al oxide content Term andisols Definition developed from volcanic ash Term aridisols Definition dry soils found in most desert areas; salinization common Term mollisols Definition grassland soils of high agricultural value, such as under the Great Plains (US); thick O horizon Term alfisols Definition moderately weathered deciduous forest soils; moist, highly mineral-rich soils Term spodosols Definition soils of coniferous (needle-leaf evergreen, pine) forests; highly acidic soils Term ultisols Definition warm, wet climate soils with a high clay content in the B horizon, as found in the SE US Term oxisols Definition tropical areas with high rainfall; rainforests; rich in FE and AL oxides; subject to laterization Term gelisols Definition cold & frozen soils subject to crytoturbation (frost churning); found in high latitudes & elevations Term Definition Types of diversity:  Genetic  Species  Ecological  Functional Term Genetic Diversity Definition variety in the genetic makeup among individuals Term Species Diversity Definition variety among the species or distinct types of organisms found in different habitats of the planet Term Ecological Diversity Definition variety of forests, deserts, grasslands, streams, lakes, oceans, coral reefs wetlands & other biological communities Term Functional Diversity Definition biological & chemical processes or functions such as energy flow & matter cycling needed for the survival of species & biological communities Term Phytogeography Definition Plant distributions Term Zoogeography Definition Animal distributions Term Photosynthesis Definition the process of converting CO2 and H2O into carbohydrate and O2 using sunlight as the energy source Term Photosynthesis occurs in: Definition the cells of plants which contain chloroplasts which contain the pigment chlorophyll Term Limitations of photosynthesis Definition  rate of respiration  availability of water  rate of evaporation & transpiration Term Biomass Definition useful chemical energy created from photosynthesis Term Definition Term Microevolution Definition small genetic changes that occur in a population * mutations Term Mutations are: Definition  random & unpredictable  only source of totally new genetic raw material (without human help)  relatively rare events Term Natural Selection Definition process by which a particular beneficial gene or set of genes is reproduced in succeeding generations more than other genes. This leads to a population of organisms with a greater proportion of individuals better adapted to certain environmental conditions. Term Adaptation or adaptive trait Definition any genetically controlled structural, physiological, or behavioral characteristic that helps an organism survive & reproduce under a given set of environmental conditions. Term Definition EX’s: structural adaptations: coloration, mimicry, protective cover, gripping mechanisms Term physiological adaptations: Definition hibernation, chemical protection Term behavioral adaptations: Definition migration, various mating behaviors Term Ecological Niche Definition total way of life or role of a species in an ecosystem; all physical, chemical, & biological conditions a species needs to live & reproduce in an ecosystem Term Habitat Definition the physical location in which a species lives Term Definition group of organisms that resemble one another in appearance, behavior, chemical makeup & Species processes, & genetic structure Term Generalists Definition species with a broad ecological niche; can live in many different habitats, eat a variety of foods & tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions; less prone to extinction Term Ex. of generalists: Definition humans, flies, cockroaches, mice & rats, raccoons, coyotes, channel catfish, various weed species, etc. Term Specialists Definition species with a narrow ecological niche; may live in only one type of habitat, tolerate only one type or a few types of food, tolerate only a narrow range of environmental conditions; more prone to extinction Term Ex. of specialists: Definition red-cockaded woodpecker, giant pandas, snail kite, numerous tropical rain forest species Term Definition species that normally live & thrive in a particular Isolation Term Reproductive Isolation Definition long-term geographic separation of members of aparticular sexually reproducing species Term Extinction Definition complete disappearance of a living species from the Earth; happens when a species cannot adapt & successfully reproduce under new environmental conditions or it evolves into one or more new species Term background extinction Definition Normal extinction of various species as a result of changes in local environmental conditions. Compare mass depletion, mass extinction. Term mass extinction Definition A catastrophic, widespread, often global event in which major groups of species are wiped out over a short time compared with normal (background) extinctions. Compare background extinction, mass depletion. Term Temperature Definition Abiotic factor (T°): certain species, plants & animals, will only thrive in warm climates, OR only in cold climates; some in both EX: * megatherm plants – adapted to high temperatures * microtherm plants – adapted to within stand low temperatures Term Water conditions Definition Abiotic no water = no photosynthesis = no plants = no animals EX: * xerophyte plants – adapted to low moisture conditions * hygrophyte plants – adapted to high moisture conditions Term Light availability Definition Abiotic increase light = increase photosynthesis EX: * shade tolerant (base of rainforest) vs shade intolerant (need direct sunlight) Term Soils Definition Abiotic structure, texture both affect plant root systems and thus plant survival and dispersal root and plant support and water availability Term Landforms Definition Abi * elevation affects T° and moisture * slope steepness affects water availability, & soil thickness * slope aspect (compass direction a slope is facing) affects amount of sunlight, and thus T° & moisture levels N vs. S facing, slope of a mountain (cooler/wetter) vs. (warmer/drier) mutualism species interaction in which the presence of one species is often essential to the survival of another species, but usually both species benefit the interaction commensalism interaction between organisms of different species in which one organism benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed to any great degree. epiphytes and various trees Amensalism the inhibition of one species by another through chemical means ex. certain plants put toxins in the soil so other plants can't grow Biogeochemical Cycles Water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur Hydrologic Cycle collection purification, and distribution of earth's water supply through both the abiotic and biotic components of the environment Carbon cycle the flow of carbon primarily as carbon dioxide through the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere, produced during aerobic respiration Nitrogen Cycles the movement of nitrogen, in various chemical forms, through the environment nitrogen fixation process in which specialized bacteria convert gaseous nitrogen into ammonia that can be used by plants ex. soybean nitrification process in which most ammonia in soil is Mid-latitude deciduous and Mixed Forest dominated by broadleaf deciduous trees of eastern US, Europe, and eastern china, and Evergreen in SE US Temperate Rainforest (Temperate evergreen forest) needle-leaf trees of US NW Coast ex- redwoods Mediterranean Scrub or Shrubland consits of widely spaced evergreen and deciduous trees and hard or waxy-leaved evergreen bushes; found in mediterranean climate costal california Northern coniferous Forest dominated by coniferous or cone-bearing trees; also known as the boreal forest in Canada Tundra dominated by mosses, lichens, sedges, and a few dwarf trees/ shrubs; this area is controlled by permafrost Ecological Succession a somewhat predictable process in which one set or assemblage of plant species replaces an existing assemblage over a long period of time 3 Sub-types of secondary succession linear autogenic sucession, cyclic autogenic, and allogenic linear autogenic succession basically a one-way succession such that a particular stage or assemblage is not repeated cyclic autogenic stages or assemblages can be repeated and often are allogenic change in sp. composition brought about by "outside" forces, or disturbances Costal Zone high net primary productivity; contains estuaries, costal wetlands, and coral reefs Open sea divided into 3 vertical zones euphotic, bathyal, and abyssal Euphotic high levels of sunlight penetrate Bathyal medium levels of sunlight penetrate abyssal low levels of sunlight Lakes classified by nutrient content and primary productivity Indo-Malayan south-central Asia, slightly diverse. Ex: orangutan, new guinew and nearby islands. Australian australia and nearby islands. Most marcipuals. Kangaroo wombat, Tasmanian devil, koala New Zealand rather unique fauna. Endemic sp include the kiwi and the tuatara Pacific islands of the specific ex: fuji, Hawaii, etc. each island group is often quite unique do to its isolation; Hawaiian honeycreepers, Galapagos finches SLOSS DEBATE should there be created areas that are single large or several small reserves Habitat Destruction effect on populations and species and species assemblages Introduced or exotic Effect on local native species Ex: KUDZU in Southern US, mongoose in Hawaii, argentine fire ant into US, rabbits into Australia