Carbohydrates and Sugars: Types, Sources, and Uses, Exams of Pharmacognosy

Download Carbohydrates and Sugars: Types, Sources, and Uses and more Exams Pharmacognosy in PDF only on Docsity! PHARMACOGNOSY PART 1 AND 2 Pharmakon (drug) Gnosis (study) - Greek words for pharmacognosy J.A. Schidmt - he first coined the term pharmacognosy C.A. Seydler - He introduced pharmacognosy in his work analecta pharmacognostica PHARMACOGNOSY - An applied science that deals with the: o Biologic o Biochemical o Economic features of natural drugs and their constituent human urine - source of urokinase Pancreas of Hogs - source of insulin Uterus of pregnant mare - source of conjugated estrogen digitalis lanata - source of digoxin Papaver somniferum - source of morphine Blumea balsamifera - source of sambong Colchicum autumnale - source of colchicine Streptomyces griseus - source of erythromycin Bacillus subtilis T. (tracey strain) - source of bacitracin Penicillium notatum - source of penicillin Hippocrates - (Father of medicine) Aristotle - Gets his source of animals Paracelsus - Gets his source from plants Morphine - examples of single mixtures Lavender oil Coconut oil Psyllium - examples of mixture of principles INERT CONSTITUENTS - No definite pharmacologic activity (excipients) Johannes Buchner - Who is the person involved in the isolation of salicin from willow barks Cellulose, Lignin, suberin, cutin, starch, albumin, coloring agent - inert constituents of plants Keratin, Chitin, muscle fiber, connective tissue, Collagen, Glycogen - inert constituents of animals True - true or false Chitin is only found in invertebraes Starch - stored energy of plants Glycogen - stored energy of animals o Cellulose o Chitin (invertebrae) o Collagen - structural components of plants and animals SECONDARY PLANT SUBSTANCES - Constituents that are extracted, crystallized and purified for therapeutic use Hereditary - (genetic composition) induced both qualitative and quantitative changes Ontogeny - stage of development Hereditary Ontogeny Environment - 3 principal factors that influence secondary plant substances menstruum - solvent in extraction MARC - Undissolved portion of the drug that remains after the extraction process Indigenous - Plants growing in their native countries Naturalized - Plants grown in a foreign land or in a locality other than their native countries Datura stramonium - naturalized plant that is introduced into US from europe ETHNOBOTANY - A broad term referring to the study of plants by humans ETHNOMEDICINE - It refers to the use of plants by humans as medicine TRADITIONAL MEDICINE - The sum total of all non-mainstream medical practices usually excluding so called western medicine PHARMACOPEIA - A book containing directions for the identification of samples and the preparation of compound medicines USP - contains all of the active ingredient such as aspirin, paracetamol, salbutamol NF (National formulary) - contains excipients such as properties of cellulose and starch DRUG BIOSYNTHESIS/ BIOGENESIS - Study of biochemical pathways leading to the formation of secondary constituents used as drugs. Synthesizes drugs to form biological materials Curing - preparation of crude drugs that is also called as Modified drying method Goat skin - packaging material of aloe Kerosene tins - packaging material of colophony Well closed container - packaging material of asafoetida Pressed and baled - packaging material of senna, vinca MOLECULAR PHARMACOGNOSY - • Science dealing with the study of classification, identification, cultivation, and protection of crude drugs and production of effective elements at molecular level • Studies animals sources and herbal drugs Organoleptic Chemical Microscopic Physical - 4 WAYS TO CLASSIFY CRUDE DRUGS Organoleptic - Evaluation by means of the organs of sense and includes the macroscopic appearance of the drug, its odor and taste, occasionally the sound or "snap" of its fracture, and the "feel" of the drug to the touch Biologic Assay - Assays on living animals as well as on intact or exercised organs often indicate the strength of the drug or its preparations. Toxic Symptomatic Tissue methods - 3 main types of biologic assay Mice - TEST ANIMALS Phenol Coefficient Turtles - TEST ANIMALS Cardiovascular drugs Rabbits - TEST ANIMALS Insulin, Tubocurarine Rats - TEST ANIMALS Corticotrophin inj, Vasopressin Cat - TEST ANIMALS Glucagon Chicken - TEST ANIMALS Oxytocin Pigeon - TEST ANIMALS Digoxin CHEMICAL TEST - best method of determining the official potency Borntrager's test Pink red color in the ammoniacal (lower) layer - test and result for anthraquinone glycoside Froth test Capillary tube test Hemolysis test SPOILAGE - Conditions of adulteration Due to attack of microorganism DETERIORATION - Conditions of adulteration Impairment in quality of drug ADMIXTURE - Conditions of adulteration Addition of one article to another through ignorance, carelessness or an accident SOPHISTICATION - Conditions of adulteration Intentional or deliberate kind of adulteration SUBSTITUTION - Conditions of adulteration When an entirely different article is sold or used in placed of one required 1. According to their morphology 2. According to the taxonomy 3. According to their therapeutic application 4. According to their chemical constituents - Classification of drugs Flower - modified shoot meant for production of seeds Flower buds - an example of this is clove Cascara, Cinnamon, Willow, Cinchona, Sassafras - examples of barks • Quillaia • Arjuna - Flat barks Wild cherry • Cassia - curved barks Kurchi - recurved barks • Ashoka • Cassia • Cincona ledgeriana - channeled barks Cascara • Cinnamon - quill barks Java • Cinnamon - double quill barks Cinnamon - compound quill barks WOODS - The tissues produced by cambium on inner side HEART WOOD or DURAMEN - • Innermost central region of dicot stem or root • Non-functioning • Non-living • Dark colored- due to tannins, pigments, gums and resins • Gives mechanical support • Ex. Sandal wood SAPWOOD or LABURNUM - • Outer region of the wood • Function: conducts water and food material to plant • Lighter in color • Ex. quassia RHIZOME - Grow horizontally under the soil RHIZOME - ginger, turmeric, rhubarb, male fern, orris TUBER - Swollen underground structures DICOTYLEDONAE Rutaceae - Buchu, Orange, Lemon peel Rosales - DICOTYLEDONAE Rosaceae - Wild cherry, almond, Rose oil Umbelliflorae - DICOTYLEDONAE Umbelliferae /Apiaceae (cremocarp fruits) - Asafoetida, Caraway, fenne Contortae - DICOTYLEDONAE Apocynaceae - Rauwolfia, Vinca Tubiflorae - DICOTYLEDONAE Solanaceae / Asteridae (cymose flowers) - Belladona, Datura, capsicum Compositae sunflower family, mugworth, milk, thistle - other name of asteraceae and its examples Palmae betel nut coconut - other name for arecaceae and its example Cassia fistula, golden shower tree - examples of caesalpinaceae Cremocarp fruits, Anise - examples of umbelliferae Cymose flower, Capsules or berries - examples of solanaceae/asteridae Peppermint, Bilabiate flower - examples of lamiaceae/ labiatae Mint family - ENGLISH NAME Lamiaceae/ Labiatae Citrus family - ENGLISH NAME Rutaceae Sunflower family - ENGLISH NAME Asteraceae/ Compositae Palm family - ENGLISH NAME Areacaceae/ Palmae Nightshade family - ENGLISH NAME Asteridae/ Solanaceae Grains family - ENGLISH NAME Poaceae / Graminae Legumes family - ENGLISH NAME Fabaceae / Leguminosae Citrus - FAMILY OF: Calamansi Mint - CRUDE DRUGS PURGATIVES Digitalis Squill Strophanthus - CRUDE DRUGS CARDIO TONICS Vidang Quassia Male fern Areca Ipil-ipil Niyog-niyogan Santonin - CRUDE DRUGS ANTHELMINTICS Datura Hyoscyamus Belladonna - CRUDE DRUGS ANTISPASMODICS Quassia Nux-vomica Gentian Cinchona - CRUDE DRUGS BITTERS Podophyllum Vinca Taxus - CRUDE DRUGS ANTICANCER Physostigmine Pilocarpine - CRUDE DRUGS MIOTICS Atropine - CRUDE DRUGS MYDRIATIC • Anthraquinone glycosides • Castor oil - LAXATIVES IRRITANT Gums Cellulose derivatives - LAXATIVES BULK FORMING Lactulose - LAXATIVES OSMOTIC CARBOHYDRATES - • Cn(H2O)n • Source of energy LIGHT REACTION - reaction that converts electromagnetic energy into chemical potential DARK REACTION - reaction that consists of the enzymatic reactions that utilize the energy from the light reactions to fix carbon dioxide into sugar Monosaccharides - carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed Glyceraldehyde - example of triose Erythrose - example of tetrose Ribose, Xylulose - example of pentose Glucose, fructose, mannose - example of hexose Sedoheptulose - example of heptose Neuraminic acid - example of nonose D-glucose - Monosaccharide Obtained by controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of starch Crystalline dextrose - Monosaccharide From rigorous purification of high conversion hydrolysates DISACCHARIDES - Yields 2 monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis LACTULOSE - • Alkaline rearrangement of lactose • Poorly absorbed • Bacteria in the colon metabolize the disaccharide to acetic and lactic acids • Laxative effect SUCROSE - Table sugar Sugar cane Sugar beets Sugar maple LACTOSE - Milk sugar Cow's milk MALTOSE - Beer sugar Barley CELLOBIOSE - Enzymatic breakdown of cellulose LACTULOSE - Semisynthetic sugar prepared by alkaline rearrangement of lactose LACTULOSE - Acetic acid + lactic acid LACTOSE - Glucose + Galactose SUCROSE - Glucose + Fructose MALTOSE TREHALOSE CELLOBIOSE - Glucose + Glucose SOPHOROSE PRIMVEROSE - Glucose + Xylose CREAM - Fat globules rise to the top upon standing BUTTER - Union of fat globules Glucose - Q. The first sugar formed during photosynthesis and also a main transport material D-xylose - What is the sugar formed from corn cobs and straw? Fructofuranose - Cyclic form of levulose when it is present in oligosaccharide or polysaccharide Sucrose Saccharose - The only disaccharide that occurs abundantly in the free state in plants butter milk - If milk is allowed to settle, the solid particles would form butter while the liquid part in the bottom would be? SKIMMED MILK - The milk left after separation of the cream COAGULUM - Skimmed milk treated with rennin CHEESE - Proper treatment of the coagulum WHEY - Liquid separated from the coagulum, contains lactose and inorganic salts RAFFINOSE - Glucose + Galactose + Fructose Cotton seeds GENTIANOSE - From Brandy (from wine) Whiskey (from fermented malted grain) Rum (from fermented molasses) MANNITOL - sugar alcohol used to decrease intracranial pressure MANNITOL - Isolated from manna Franxinus ornus Lianne (Oleaceae family) obtained by reduction of mannose MANNITOL - A hexahydric alcohol that is not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract Laxative Diagnostic aid Osmotic diuretic Lowers intracranial pressure - Mannitol is also used as Sorbitol - Hexitol Obtained from the ripe berries of mountain ash, Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae) D-GLUCITOL/ SORBITOL - Tastes approximately half as sweet as sucrose Humectant Sorbitol + Mannitol D-GLUCITOL/ SORBITOL - Urologic irrigation CITRIC ACID - Isolated by Scheele Tricarboxylic acid Useful in buffering systems Acidulant in effervescent formulations LACTIC ACID - Obtained by the lactic fermentation of sugars or is prepared synthetically Acidulant in infant feeding formulas OXALIC ACID - Ethanedioic acid C2H2O4 (anhydrous) (C2H2O4)2H2O (dihydrate) Bleaching agent SUCCINIC ACID - Butanedioic acid (C4H6O4) MALIC ACID - 2-hydroxyButanedioic acid (C4H6O5) TARTARIC ACID - Dihydroxybutanedioic acid (C4H6O6) TARTARIC ACID - Dicarboxylic acid Obtained as a by-product of wine industry Used as a substitute for citric acid in buffer systems and in effervescent formulations FUMARIC ACID - Ferrous fumarate; hematinic • Oxalic • Malonic • Succinic • Glutaric • Adipic • Pimelic • Suberic • Azelaic • Sebacic - Dicarboxylic acid POLYSACCHARIDES - • Polymers of monosaccharides (sugars) • Linked together through glycosidic (ether) linkages • Starch • Glycogen • Inulin • Cellulose - Examples of homoglycan • Gums • Mucilage • Glycosides - Examples of heteroglycan Glucosan Fructosan Mannosan - examples of hexosans Inulin - example of fructosan vegetable ivory - example of mannosan • Araban • Xylan - • Glucosan • Branch = every 8-10 residues PURIFIED COTTON - • Gossypium hirsutum (Fam. Malvaceae) • Absorbent cotton POWDERED CELLULOSE - cellulose Self-binding tablet diluent and disintegrating agent MICROCRYSTALLINE CELLULOSE - Cellulose diluent in tablets Cellulose acetate phthalate - cellulose derivate Enteric coating Hydroxypropylcellulose Ethylcellulose - cellulose derivative Binder and film coating in tablet formulations Methylcellulose Hydroxyethylcellulose Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose - cellulose derivative Components of artificial tears Methylcellulose Sodium carboxymethylcellulose - cellulose derivative Bulk laxative Oxidized cellulose Oxidized regenerated cellulose - cellulose derivative Local hemostatic Methylcellulose Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose - cellulose derivative Suspending agent PURIFIED RAYON - • A fibrous form of bleached, regenerated cellulose • Used as surgical aid and may not contain more than 1.25% of titanium dioxide PYROXYLIN - • Used in the preparation of collodion and flexible collodion o Nitric acid o Sulfuric acid - acids involve in pyroxylin Soluble gun cotton - synonyms of pyroxylin Scientific name: Pyrus malus Family name: Rosaceae Constituent use: Malic acid - antioxidant Chemical name: 2-hydroybutanedioic acid - Taxonomy of apple Scientific name: Vitis vinifera Family name: Vitaceae Constituent: D-Glucose Synonyms: Dextrose, Blood sugar - Taxonomy of grapes Scientific name: Solanum tuberosum Family name: Solanaceae/ Asteridae Constituent (carbo): Starch Anogeissus latifolia (Combretaceae) - botanical source of ghatti gum Sterculia gum Sterculiaceae, Sterculia urens, S. villosa, S. tragacantha Bixaceae, Cochlospermum gossypium D-galacturonic acid D-glucuronic acid - Synonym, botanical source and constituent of karaya gum VERMIFORM TRAGACANTH - Wormlike and is twisted into coils TRAGACANTH SORTS - Shaped is like irregular tears Yellowish or brownish color RIBBON GUM AND FLAKE GUM - The better grade comes from transverse incisions made with a knife in the main stem and older branches BROWN SEAWEEDS - MARINE GUMS Sodium alginate or algin laminaria RED ALGAE - MARINE GUMS agar or japanese isinglas carageenan danish agar ALGIN - Extracted from brown seaweeds by the use of dilute alkali Macrocystis pyrifera (Lessoniaceae) Other Sources: Class Phaeophyceae Ascophyllum, Ecklonia, Laminaria, Nereocystis ALGIN - cpnstituents Mannuronic acid Sodium alginate: mixture of beta-D Sodium salts of glucuronic acid (Na-glucuronate) Sodium salts of mannuronic acid (Na-mannuronate) Japanese isinglas - synonym of agar AGAR - botanical sources are Geledium cartilagineum (Gelidiaceae) Gracilaia confervoides (Sphaerococcaceae) Related red algae (Rhodophyceae) AGAR - constituents are Agarose Agaropectin CARRAGEENAN - botanical sources are Chondrus crispus (Linne) Stackhouse Gigartina mamillosa (Goodenough and Woodward) J. Agardh (Gigartinacea) CARRAGEENAN - constituents are Gelating agents k-carrageenan (Kappa) i-carrageenan (lota) Thickener, phlogistic agent y-carrageenan (Lambda) Chrondus or Irish moss - An illusion to the cartilage like character of the dry thallus Gigartina - An illusion to the fruit bodied that appear as elevated tubercles in the thallus Al(OH)3 Mannitol Alginic acid Sodium bicarbonate - ingredients of gaviscon as powder chewing tablet PECTIN - Obtained from the dilute acid extract of inner portion of the rind of citrus fruits or from apple pomace methoxylated polygalacturonic acids - Chief component of pectin linear 1,4-linked D-galacturonan - main carbohydrate component of pectin Kaopectate - Kaolin + Pectin o Protectant o Suspending agent o Ingredient in many anti-diarrheal formulations o Colloidal solution - uses of pectin COMMERCIAL PECTIN - pectin that Contains sugars or organic acids PHARMACEUTICAL PECTIN - Pure pectin to which no additions have been made PROPECTIN - Pectin in fruit is found in an insoluble form It is converted to the soluble form by heating the fruit with dilute acid SEED - TREE/SHRUB, SEED, MARINE, MICROBIAL OR PLANT EXTRACT Locust bean cydonium Psyllium Guar gum TREE/SHRUB - TREE/SHRUB, SEED, MARINE, MICROBIAL OR PLANT EXTRACT Ghatti gum Acacia Tragacanth Karaya MARINE - TREE/SHRUB, SEED, MARINE, MICROBIAL OR PLANT EXTRACT Danish agar Carrageenan Algin Agar MICROBIAL - TREE/SHRUB, SEED, MARINE, MICROBIAL OR PLANT EXTRACT Dextran Xanthan PLANT EXTRACT - TREE/SHRUB, SEED, MARINE, MICROBIAL OR PLANT EXTRACT Pectin Carob pulp, St. John's bread - synonym of locust bean gum Danish agar - synonym of furcellaran Bassorin - Swelling property of tragacanth Arabin - Swelling property of acacia Arabin - a complex mixture of calcium, magnesium and potassium salts of Arabic acid Tragacanthin - Soluble component of tragacanth D-Galacturonic acid - From inner rind of citrus fruits D-Galacturonic acid and D-Glucuronic acid - Components of karaya gum Kappa Lota Lambda - gum components of carrageenan Mannuronic acid - Major component of algin