PSY Exam 1 Cheat sheet, Cheat Sheet of Psychology

Download PSY Exam 1 Cheat sheet and more Cheat Sheet Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! Unit 1 1. The three main types of research include: a. Experimental research: involves manipulating one or more variables to study their effect on a dependent variable. Usually used to test hypotheses and theories. b. Correlational research: involves examining the relationship between two variables. It can help identify trends and patterns in data. c. Descriptive research: also known as observational research. It is research done without using numbers. 2. Definition of psychology: psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes 3. Parts of a neuron include: a. The cell body: this contains the nucleus and other organelles. It is the main part of the neuron b. The dendrites: these are branching structures that extend from the cell body. They receive incoming signals from incoming signals from other neurons and transmit them to the cell body. c. The axon: a long, thin, structure that extends from the cell body. It carries electrical signals away from the cell body to other neurons or muscles d. The axon terminal: this is the end of the axon. Axon terminals release chemicals called neurotransmitters, which transmit signals to other neurons or muscles. e. The myelin sheath: the fatty layer that surrounds the axon. Helps to speed up the transition of the neurotransmitters. 4. Validity: refers to the extent to which a study accurately measures what it is supposed to measure. 5. Reliability: refers to the consistency and stability of the research results. 6. Neurotransmitters: chemicals produced by neurons that are responsible for transmitting signals between neurons and other cells in the body. They play a key role in many essential functions such as cognition, emotion, and motor control. 7. Top-down versus bottom-up processing: a. Top-down processing refers to the use of prior knowledge and context to interpret sensory information b. Bottom-up processing refers to the analysis of sensory information in a sequential, step-by-step manner. 8. Signal detection theory: whether or not we can detect a stimulus, such as a small sound or background noises 9. Vision theories a. Trichromatic theory: vision is perceived through 3 different color cones in our eyes, red, green, and blue. This was a theory made by Young-Helmholtz. b. Opponent-process theory: visual systems respond to pairs of red-green, white- black, and blue-yellow colors. This theory was made by Ewald Hering. 10. Gestalt theory: how people organize their perceptions according to certain patterns a. Figure-ground: figures and objects stand out from their surroundings b. Grouping principle: We naturally group near figures together 11. Theories of hearing: a. Place theory: each frequency produces vibrations at a particular place on the basilar membrane. We can detect a location of a high frequency sound a lot easier than a low frequency sound. b. Frequency theory: the perception of a sound’s frequency depends on how often the auditory nerve fires. 12. Stressors, stress, and strain a. Stressors: external events or situations that might trigger the body’s stress response. b. Stress: the body’s response to stressors. It’s the adaptive response that helps the body to cope with challenging situations. c. Strain: the physiological and psychological changes that occur during the stress response. Unit 2 1. Classical versus operant conditioning a. Classical conditioning: a type of learning where an animal or human learns to associate a particular stimulus with a particular response. b. Operant conditioning: a type of learning where an animal or person learns to associate a particular behavior with a particular consequence. 2. Types of reinforcement in operant conditioning: a. Positive reinforcement: the addition of a desired stimulus following a behavior. i. Example: giving a child candy after cleaning their room b. Negative reinforcement: the removal of an undesired stimulus following a behavior. i. Example: taking medication for a headache and the headache going away c. Positive punishment: the addition of an undesired stimulus following a behavior i. Example: spanking a child after doing something bad d. Negative punishment: the removal of a desired stimulus following a behavior i. Example: taking away a child’s toy after they don’t clean their room 3. Primary versus secondary reinforcers: a. Primary reinforcers: stimuli that is innately rewarding, such as food, water, or sex. They satisfy biological needs, and they are naturally reinforcing and increase the likelihood of the behavior happening again. b. Secondary reinforcers: stimuli that is learned to be reinforcing through association with primary reinforcers. For example, money is a secondary reinforcer because it is not innately rewarding, but it can be used to obtain primary reinforcers such as water or food. 4. Memory: the retention of information or experience over time a. Sensory memory: the initial storage of sensory information such as sights, sounds, and sensations i. Echoic memory: auditory sensory memory ii. Iconic memory: visual sensory memory b. Short-term memory: the temporary storage and manipulation of information, such as holding a phone number in your head before you write it down. i. Working memory: the ability to temporarily hold information while performing cognitive tasks a. Passive jobs: low job autonomy (the extent to which the person has control over their work and the ability to make decisions on their own), low job demands b. Active jobs: high job autonomy, high job demands c. Low-strain jobs: high job autonomy, low job demands d. High-strain jobs: low job autonomy, high job demands 5. Abnormal behaviors have 3 main criteria: a. Deviant behavior: behavior that is significantly different from the norms and expectations of a particular culture or social group b. Manipulative behavior: behavior that is not effective in helping the individual meet their goals or function in their environment c. Distressful behavior: behavior that causes significant emotional or psychological distress to the individual or the people around them 6. Mental health disorders: a. Neurodevelopmental disorders i. Autism spectrum disorder: deficits in social communication and use of restrictive, repetitive behaviors ii. ADHD: symptoms include inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity b. Anxiety disorders i. General anxiety disorder: persistent anxiety for no reason for at least 6 months ii. Panic disorder: recurrent, sudden onset of intense terror, often without explanation iii. Phobia disorder: irrational fear of a certain object or situation iv. OCD: anxiety provoking thoughts that will not go away and/or urges to perform ritualistic behaviors c. Depressive disorders i. Major depressive disorder: most common type of depressive disorder. Feeling of sadness and hopelessness ii. Bipolar disorder: episodes of mania or hypomania that come with episodes of depression d. Eating disorders i. Anorexia nervosa: causes one not to eat because of a fear of gaining weight ii. Bulimia nervosa: binge eating followed by making one throw up because they feel guilt iii. Binge eating disorder: binge eating, eating a large amount of food without stopping Unit 5 1. Biopsychosocial model: a perspective that emphasizes the role of biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding and explaining human behavior 2. Withdrawals and tolerance a. Withdrawals: painful symptom of the body readjusting to the absence of a drug. Withdrawals make it hard to quit a substance b. Tolerance: the diminished psychoactive effects of a drug after repeated use. Feeds into the addiction because one has to take more and more to feel anything after a while of taking it 3. 3 main types of drugs: a. Depressants: reduces arousal and stimulation by affecting the central nervous system and slowing down messages from the brain to the body (alcohol) b. Stimulants: Speed up the messages between the brain and the body to make the individual feel more awake, alert, or energetic (nicotine/cocaine) c. Hallucinogenic: Produces changes in perception, mood, and cognitive processing. Alters sense of time and makes one see and hear things that aren’t real (LSD) 4. Drugs impact the brain in different ways by altering the function of the neurons which transmit information a. Stimulants: increase the activity of neurons by increasing certain neurotransmitters b. Depressants: decrease the activity of neurons by reducing certain neurotransmitters c. Hallucinogenic: alter the neurons by disrupting the patterns of communication between different brain regions 5. Use, abuse, and dependence a. Use: any consumption of drugs, does not lead to abuse or dependency in some people b. Abuse: when someone continues to use drugs even though they seem to cause problems c. Dependency: addiction to a drug and not being able to stop the drug even if you wanted to 6. Recovery-friendly workplace (RFW): a business that chooses to go above and beyond for their employees by creating a work culture that supports people in recovery from substances 7. Big 5 symptoms of a substance use disorder: a. Withdrawal symptoms b. Rule setting to limit use c. Sacrificing activities d. Role fulfillment failure e. Craving/compulsion to use 8. Protected and not protected by the ADA a. Protected: active alcohol-specific SUDs, person in active recovery from a SUD b. Not protected: active drug-specific SUDs, medical marijuana 9. Employers can: a. Prohibit use of ADA b. Drug test candidates or current employees c. Terminate or deny employment for illegal use of drugs d. Require employees who use ADA to meet standards for performance and conduct 10. Why do we need recovery friendly workplaces (RFW)? a. For employees: i. Individuals with SUDs that are employed are more likely to demonstrate than those who are unemployed: 1. Lower rates of recurrence 2. Higher rates of abstinence 3. Less criminal activity 4. Improvements in quality of life ii. 75% of adults ages 18-64 with SUDs are in the workforce b. For the employer: i. Substance misuse costs organizations around $70-$80 billion a year ii. 1 in 11 employees experience a SUD in the past 12 months iii. 9% or around 13.4 million employees are in recovery from an SUD iv. Employees with SUDs miss around %50 more days than their peers and up to 6 weeks of work annually v. 75%+ employers have been affected by employee opioid use, with 38% experiencing impacts related to absenteeism and/or impaired working performance Final unit 1. Positive psychology: scientific study of what makes life worth living a. Scientific approach to studying human’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, with a focus on strengths and building the good in life 2. Evolutionary perspective: our brains are hardwired to scan for the negative or harmful stimuli around us 3. The negative bias (“the reptile brain”): the brain has been structured to notice negative stimuli easier than positive stimuli 4. Hedonic treadmill: chasing the feeling of happiness through materialistic things and short-term pleasures 5. Hierarchy of needs- Abraham Maslow a. Our most basic needs need to be met before we can focus on our desires for self- expression and self-actualization i. (low to high) psychological needs, safety, love and belonging, esteem, self-actualization 6. PERMA a. Positive emotion b. Engagement c. Relationships d. Meaning e. Accomplishments 7. Goals of positive psychology: a. Shift one’s perspective b. Not to replace regular psychology, but to add a positive twist to it c. Encourage people to discover and nurture their character strengths rather than correcting shortcomings