research about how to do a good research, Study Guides, Projects, Research of English

Download research about how to do a good research and more Study Guides, Projects, Research English in PDF only on Docsity! 1 Home economics and food literacy – An international investigation Professor Donna Pendergast Griffith University d.pendergast@griffith.edu.au Ms Yvonne Dewhurst University of Aberdeen y.dewhurst@abdn.ac.uk Abstract Child and adult obesity is a growing concern in affluent nations around the world, as typified in Australia where the incidence is more than 25% for children and 55% for adults. The connection between obesity, food choices, nutrition knowledge, and food preparation skills is well established. However, education about the concept and processes of ‘food literacy’ is relatively new. Furthermore, public discussion about the role of schools and formal curriculum to prepare young people to be food literate has received scant attention until recently, when medical experts dealing with the consequences of the obesity epidemic made the following plea ‘‘providing a mandatory food preparation curriculum to students throughout the country may be among the best investments society could make—bring home economics back’’ (Lichtenstein & Ludwig, 2010, p.1858). This paper reports on an international study about the role of home economics in developing food literacy. Data were collected using an online survey with respondents from around the world replying to a series of questions about this topic. A total of 1188 respondents from 36 different countries in the world shared their views. Among key findings are the differences in understandings of ‘food literacy’. Recommendations for future action are presented as a conclusion to this paper. Introduction Home economics engages with food and food plays a pivotal role in our lives. It is a basic and essential aspect linked to our survival, our beliefs, and our impact on the natural environment as well as our sense of self via memories and emotions. The sharing and providing of food is “... fundamental to human experience and human culture” (Focus on Food, 2010, p.125) and as a pedagogical tool, food literacy education is a useful way of examining the interplay between social, political, economic, and environmental aspects of many food issues. The “evolution of human biology and human society have been intimately shaped by the types and amounts of food available” (McMichael, 2005, p.713). From the advent of the agricultural revolution, human civilisation has developed around sustainable food supplies, leading to settled communities, specialisation of trades, trade economies, and growth of complex political systems. When production becomes less plentiful and consumption more problematic, humankind seeks new means and systems. Analyses of current global trends illustrate that, for around the past quarter-century humans have been living beyond the environment’s ability to sustain this consumption (McMichael, 2001). Given this escalating 2 impact of humankind, alongside scientific and technological developments in food production, increasing consumer expectations, a rising global population and malnutrition especially excesses of particular nutrients, a diverse range of strategies and solutions need to be dealt with. Furthermore, Sen (1981) discusses economic and social inequities resulting in global disparities about food access. Social fracas and discontent create global tensions. Hunger, is both a social justice and a sustainability issue. According to the World Food Programme (2009), around 66 million children in developing countries attend school hungry daily. The United States (US) Department of Agriculture’s latest food security report (Nord, Andrews & Carlson, 2009) estimates that because of inadequate finances or other resources, nearly 15% of US households’ had limited access to food at some time during the year. This food insecurity is the highest since statistics were first collected in 1995 (Weaver-Hightower, 2011). Young people need to be positioned (in terms of skills and knowledge) and ‘dispositioned’ (in terms of values and attitudes) to cope with change, complexity and insecurity in such food contexts. As confident consumers they will require knowledge and skills to make healthy and appropriate food choices and as responsible, critical citizens they must underpin this with an understanding of the interdependence of all living things and a global perspective including sustainability and social justice, to come to a deeper understanding of the complex environmental and social components of food in our lives. These inter-relationships have become obscured as our methods of food production and consumption have changed (Hubert, Frank & Igo, 2000; Goodman & DuPuis, 2002). Such ethical engagement and emancipative action (Brown & Paolucci, 1979) will ensure that our young people are effective contributors in the 21 st century. Literature Review Food in the curriculum There is no question that “one of the closest relationships between us and our environment is our daily need to consume food” (Stinson, 2010, p.10). Food and health should not be seen as subservient to or the servant of traditional academic subjects. Food education is often disregarded or viewed as less weighty than other subject disciplines as academia’s dualism of mind over body has cultivated “disdain for something as mundane, corporeal, even ‘animalistic’ as eating” (Belasco, 2008, p.2). Furthermore, the tendency is to privilege curricula which concentrate on the public sphere of men while the private, domestic sphere which has historically been associated with women becomes subsidiary. Food preparation and cooking skills and knowledge of food and nutrition and its related themes is consequently devalued, even trivialised, with stereotyped gender roles playing a part in the dynamic. Feeding the family and cooking remains a highly gendered practice (Murcott, 2001; Walter, 2009; Prior et al., 2011). Debate about the state of cooking has increased in recent years with many arguing that it is being revised, routinised, deskilled and devalued, and in decline (Short, 2003). However, rather than being in decline, Frances Short’s interpretation suggests that cooking skills are constant and unchanging and she reveals a complexity to cooking skills and knowledge “… as incorporating more than just practical, technical ability” (p.17) incorporating sophisticated abstract, conceptual and perceptual skills and understandings, as well as organisational skills and academic knowledge for example. She emphasised the importance of circumstances when preparing and cooking food – the contextual nature and linked to lifestyle. 5 In a recent paper related to obesity Lichtenstein & Ludwig (2010) suggest that “…girls and boys should be taught the basic principles they will need to feed themselves and their families within the current food environment: a version of hunting and gathering for the 21st century” p. 1857. McMichael (2001) too argues that to facilitate a better understanding of the inter- relationships between health on human and environmental levels requires education to focus on food literacy suggesting it can respond to the great challenges of the twenty-first century. It would certainly be visionary if education communities made every effort to achieve a step change in relation to food literacy education by making it compulsory or by an initiative such as that recently introduced by one government body (The Scottish Government, 2011). An expert group (half of whom were practicing Home Economics teachers) were tasked with advising its educational community and its stakeholders what transformational change in the teaching and learning of food and health should look like, identify the key components and offer advice on how these could be incorporated into practice. This literature review will now turn to exploring the concept of literacy and of food literacy specifically. Literacy Debate abounds about the types and definitions of literacy and how they can be utilized in everyday life to develop understand and apply particular fields of study. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines literacy as the ... ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate, compute and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider society (UNESCO, 2003, p.13). Smith (2009, p.55) suggests that “[G]eneral literacy has broadened to include negotiating, critical thinking and decision-making skills”. Orr (1992) offered the term ecological literacy to suggest an ability to understand the inter-relationship between people, societies and natural systems and in 2008 Capra argued that “the survival of humanity will depend on our ecological literacy” (italics in original, p. 244). Food is one of many important ways in which we relate to the rest of an ecological system and the challenge for 21 st century living is to integrate health of the biosphere and human health. Since healthy food choice is one key element of health, the multidisciplinary field of health literacy must also be factored into this inter-relationship. Health literacy as a social determinant of health offers many opportunities to reduce inequities in health (Nutbeam, 2000). The wide range of skills and competencies that people develop over their lifetimes use health information to make informed choices, reduce health risks, and increase quality of life (Zarcadoolas, Pleasant, & Greer, 2006: Rootman & Wharf-Higgins, 2007). Examining the concept of health literacy, Nutbeam (2000) identified three progressive levels of health literacy: basic/functional, communicative/interactive and critical. Functional health literacy is the use of basic literacy skills to function successfully in everyday situations, while interactive health literacy expands these handling information skills with social and personal skills applied to new and more complex situations. Critical health literacy as its name suggests, is the development of further cognitive skills for critical analysis, thus leading to self-efficacy and empowerment towards individual and collective actions. These aspects usefully classify health literacy in terms of what it enables individuals to do (Freebody & Luke, 1990) and how it can improve capacity for social action. Literacy is thus an enabler and a capacity. In relation to school learning, St. Leger (2001) usefully provides an 6 expansion of the three progressive levels of health literacy (identified above) where food is a major component. Acknowledging its interactive and critical aspect the World Health Organisation define health literacy as “…the cognitive and social skills which determine the motivation and ability of individuals to gain access to, understand and use information in ways which promote and maintain good health. Health Literacy means more than being able to read pamphlets and successfully make appointments. By improving people’s access to health information and their capacity to use it effectively, health literacy is critical to empowerment” (World Health Organisation, 2009). Advancing the notion of empowerment and capacity for an enhanced systems-based understanding of food preparation, production and behaviours, nutrition and the environment, Wilkins (2005) uses the term “food citizenship” describing it as “the practice of engaging in food-related behaviours that support, rather than threaten, the development of a democratic, socially and economically just, and environmentally sustainable food system” (p. 269). The conscious food consumer is also identified in a European project. It defines food literacy as a personal core competence and “…ability to organise one’s everyday nutrition in a self-determined, responsible and enjoyable way” (Schnogl et al., 2006, p. 1) thus acknowledging the dimensions of citizenship, sustainability, self efficacy, politics, ethics and human health. Together, these can positively influence future food security, health and well-being, and survival (McMichael, 2005). In Australia in 2011 a national study of Australian food experts that explored the question – What is food literacy and does it influence what we eat? Conducted by Vidgen and Gallegos (2011, p.ii) using the Delphi method, the following definition was found to be the most acceptable definition: [T]he relative ability to basically understand the nature of food and how it is important to you, and how able you are to gain information about food, process it, analyse it, and act upon it. Home Economics and Food Literacy Home economics has been confidently and knowledgeably dealing with health literacy and in particular the food literacy component for many years, helping to give young people the means to develop and define their future and is therefore well positioned to deal with what has become one of today’s principal, yet neglected education problems. Inclusive of social justice, the concept and processes of food literacy is a way of bringing together interconnecting elements such as food skills, food culture and global food systems, health related behaviours and environmental sustainability. In supporting young people’s learning with opportunities to become literate about food in a nutritional, environmental and socio-cultural sense, it can be argued that “[H]ome economics is situated at the crux of the solution” (Caraher, 2009, p. 6). Hands-on work with food is an excellent basis for young people to develop food preparation and cooking skills and resourcing food literacy lessons to encourage healthy lifestyles should be seen as an investment in children’s futures. It is in the home economics lab that health, nutrition, diet, sustainability, animal welfare and consumer issues become sharply relevant. It must be recognised that food preparation and cooking encourages excellence, develops transferable skills such as co-ordination and psycho-motor skills, organisation and management skills, and interpretative/analytical skills and can provide a myriad of opportunities for young people to gain a sense of achievement, a personal pride in workmanship, global cultural awareness and 7 an aesthetic sensibility. The capabilities to understand food and to create good, healthy food are life skills for independent living. Methodology An online survey was developed and administered using viral techniques. The purpose of the study was to:  provide insights into the definition of food literacy  seek opinions relating to the age at which food literacy should be included in the curriculum  explore who has responsibility for the teaching of food literacy  provide opinions about components of the food literacy curriculum  suggest future directions for food literacy education Instrument The instrument comprised of 9 questions, two of which were demographic (country and years as a professional home economics teacher). Questions typically had closed responses with the opportunity to add additional comments. Administration The survey was piloted and designed for online completion only using Surveymonkey. Surveymonkey is an online survey site that allows 17 formats for asking questions (multiple choice, true false, open-ended, etc). An email with a link to the online survey was sent to members of several home economics professional associations including the International Federation for Home Economics and Home Economics Victoria. In addition, listservers of home economists were approached and individuals were invited to distribute the survey to others. In this way the survey administration is described as being ‘viral’. The survey was administered over a 3 week period in mid 2011. No follow up procedures were used. Respondents Because viral techniques were used to distribute the survey, it is impossible to determine a response rate. The total valid responses to the online survey was 1188. Data and data analysis Surveymonkey was used to generate frequencies for each question and data was exported into SPSS for more complex analysis. Findings Demographics There were 1188 respondents from 36 different countries in the world. Twenty-three respondents failed to identify their country. Between them, four countries accounted for 92% of respondents: United States with 651 (55%); Australia 176 (15%); United Kingdom 127 (11%); and Canada 125 (11%). Other countries with 5 or more respondents include: Ireland (16), Malta (9), Norway (5) and Sweden (11). What was very exciting about the respondents was the number of countries in which respondents resided. For the purposes of this paper, overall findings will be presented with a focus on the four largest respondent groups also presented. A separate analysis will focus on responses according to the 5 geographical regions of IFHE in another paper. 10 In summary, when the data sets are taken together, there is a strong trend towards food literacy being introduced early in the lives of individuals, around the world. The latest recommended starting period was the ‘middle years’, usually defined as 10+, which had a total of 1% of respondents, in this case representing about 11 individuals. With respect to the question ‘Do you think that the development of food literacy capabilities is a shared responsibility?’ of 1069 valid responses 1026 (96%) responded in the affirmative; with just 21 (2%) suggesting not. Twenty-two (2%) responded that they ‘don’t know’. Respondents were further asked to consider who the partnerships should be with, or if it is not a shared partnership, why not. Given the strong affirmation, further analysis of who the partners should be was investigated with the ten most common partners listed in Table 1 below. Table 1: Ten most common partners for food literacy education Word Frequency Parent/s 634 Teacher/s 385 Food industry/business 361 Health / government 319 School/s 429 Community/s 231 Family/s 201 Educator/s 145 Home 130 Education 139 A tag cloud capturing additional words, presented as a proportion of their frequency, is presented in Figure 4. Figure 4: Partnerships tag cloud 11 As is strongly evident from the tag cloud, parents and teachers feature most prominently as key partners in food literacy education. The next section of the survey instrument invited respondents to select from a predefined list any elements they believe should be part of a food literacy curriculum. The list of 15 items was developed from the literature around characteristics of food literacy. Respondents also had the opportunity to add other elements they believed were missing from this list. Data for the four largest cohorts of respondents is presented in Figure 5. Figure 5: Components for inclusion in a food literacy curriculum Of note in this data are the high levels of agreement across the 15 dimensions for each of the four countries. More than 50% of respondents from each of the countries agreed to the inclusion of all 15 elements. The lowest level of support was for ‘sensory analysis’, particularly for Canadian (56%) and US respondents (51%). The highest level of support was for the element ‘food preparation and cooking activities’ for Canada (100%); UK (100%); Australia (99%) and US (98%); followed closely by the elements ‘safe and hygienic practices’ and ‘nutrition acquisition and application’. Taken in order of selection for the four largest cohorts, the following is the order in which the elements have been ranked for inclusion in the food literacy curriculum: 12 1. food preparation and cooking activities 2. safe and hygienic practices 3. nutrition acquisition and application (eg dietary guidelines, nutrients, healthy eating) 4. consumer budgeting/costing 5. higher order thinking skills (such as creating, analyzing and evaluating thereby empowering individuals to make and enact informed choices) 6. values – respect for food tradition, culture, history, festival 7. pupils views and interests to ensure relevance and ownership 8. environmental sustainability (eg food miles, locally sources food, impact of food production, manufacture and consumption, Fairtrade) 9. the science of food, cooking and related technology 10. social eating experiences 11. developing out-of-school opportunities to learn about food and cooking 12. farming seasons, the food chain and animal welfare 13. interdisciplinary and multi-context opportunities to work with other curricular areas 14. food politics and global markets 15. sensory analysis. The final question on the survey was a very open ‘Where next?’ question which asked respondents to indicate ‘what would help you to further develop a food literacy curriculum and positive food literacy ethos in your school?’ This question is analysed in a follow up paper. Discussion The findings from this study reveal a commitment to a broad understanding of food literacy incorporating a wide range of elements which should be introduced in the early years of childhood in partnerships with key players including teachers, parents and the wider community. However, there is little point in developing nutritional knowledge on healthy eating if the skills, experiences and taste preferences to implement them are marginalised (Caraher et al., 1999). Traditionally, health promotion has focused on changing knowledge, attitudes and behaviours and the development of food preparation and cooking skills may be seen as a practical meeting point of all three. In addition, a social constructivist, pedagogical approach emphasising a wide range of food based and higher order skills - beyond the ‘how to’ technical practices to include the (why) interpretive and deep learning within such practices, ensures that the development of values, beliefs and actions, resulting from open questioning, critical analysis, debate and discussion are therefore personal and more likely to be adopted. Furthermore, student participation in active learning can strengthen student-teacher relationships, improve the classroom climate, accommodate a variety of learning styles, and provide alternative ways of learning (Watkins, 2003). By using active learning methodologies students will not only come to a deeper understanding of the issues involved, but also that their motivation and enthusiasm will be heightened. This study reaffirms the importance of home economics. It gives home economics educators a platform to become global leaders in tackling the obesity problem that is challenging policy 15 Freebody, P. & Luke, A. (1990). ‘Literacies’ Programs: debates and demands in cultural context. Prospect, 5, 7-16. Gatineau, M, & Dent, M. (2011). Obesity and Mental Health. Oxford: National Obesity Observatory. Geen, A. G., Jenkins, H. J. & Daniels, C. E. J. (1998). Home Economics: Teaching for the future. Great Britain: CRAC Publications. Goodman, D. & DuPuis, B.M. (2002). Knowing food and growing food: beyond the production-consumption debate in the sociology of agriculture. Sociologia Ruralis, 42(1), 5- 23. Health and Social Care Information Centre (2009). Statistics on obesity, physical activity and diet: England, February 2009. Childhood obesity and educational attainment: a systematic review 73. Retrieved July 19, 2011 from www.ic.nhs.uk/webfiles/publications/opan09/OPAD%20Feb%202009%20final.pdf Hubert, D., Frank, A. & Igo, C. (2000). Environmental and agricultural literacy education. Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 123, 525-532. International Federation for Home Economics (2008). IFHE Position Statement - Home Economics in the 21st Century. Bonn: IFHE. International Union for Health Promotion and Education (2005). Global school health promotion. Promotion and Education Quarterly, 12, 3-4. Lee, J., Pilli, S., Gebremariam, A., Keirns, C., Davis, M., Vijan, S., et al. (2010). Getting heavier, younger: Trajectories of obesity over the life course. International Journal of Obesity, 34(4), 614-623. Lichtenstein, A. & Ludwig, D. (2010). Bring back home economics education. Journal of the American Medical Association, 303(18), 1857-1858. Retrieved July 25, 2011 from http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/303/18/1857.full McMichael, A. J. (2001). Human Frontiers, Environments and Disease: Past Patterns, Uncertain Futures. Cambridge: University Press. McMichael, A. J. (2005). Integrating nutrition with ecology: balancing the health of humans and biosphere. Public Health Nutrition, 8(6A), 706-715. Moisio, R., Arnold, E. & Price, L. L. (2004). Between Mothers and Markets: Constructing Family Identity through Homemade Food. Journal of Consumer Culture, 4(3), 361‐384. Murcott, A. (2001). Is it still a pleasure to cook for him? Social changes in the household and in the family. Journal of Consumer Studies and Home Economics, 24, 78-84. Nord, M., Andrews, M., & Carlson, S. (2009). Household food security in the United States, 2008 (Economic Research Report No. 66). January/February 2011. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 16 Nutbeam, D. (2000). Health literacy as a public health goal: A challenge for contemporary health education and communication strategies into the 21st century. Health Promotion International, 15(3), 259-267. Orr, D. (1992). Ecological Literacy: Education and the Transition to a Postmodern World. Albany, NY: S.U.N.Y. Press. Pendergast, D. (2001) Virginal Mothers, Groovy Chicks and Blokey Blokes: Re-thinking Home Economics (and) Teaching Bodies. Brisbane: Australian Academic Press. ISBN 1 875378 39 1 Pendergast, D. & Dewhurst, Y. (2007). Comparing home economics: A cross cultural perspective on values. In: Proceedings of the national biennial conference of the Home Economics Institute of Australia: Horizons in Home Economics, 57-69. Sydney: Home Economics Institute of Australia. Pendergast, D., Garvis, S. & Kanasa, H. (2011). Insight from the Public on Home Economics and Food literacy. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 39(4), 415-430. Petrina, S. (1998). Multidisciplinary technology education. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 8, 103-138. Popkin, B. M. & Doak, C. M. (1998). The obesity epidemic is a worldwide phenomenon. Nutrition. Review, 56, 106-14. Prior, G., Hall, L., Morris, S. & Draper, A. (2011). Exploring food attitudes and behaviours in the UK: Findings from the Food and You Survey 2010. England: University of Westminster. Rootman, I. & Wharf-Higgins, J. (2007). Literacy and Health: Implications for Active Living. Alberta Centre for Active Living. Retrieved July 25, 2011 from http://www.centre4activeliving.ca/publications/wellspring/2007/oct-literacy.pdf Schnogl, S., Zehetgruber, R., Danninger, S., Setzweink, M., Wenk, R., Freudenberg, M., Muller, C. & Groeneveld, M. (2006). Food Literacy! Savoury dishes for adult education and counselling. Retrieved July 11, 2011 from http://www.food-literacy.org/en/welcome Sen, A. (1981). Poverty and Famines. An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Short, F. (2003). Domestic cooking skills - what are they? Journal of the Home Economics Institute of Australia, 10(3), 13-22. Smith, M. G. (2009). Food or nutrition literacy? What concept should guide Home Economics education? International Journal of Home Economics, 2(1), 48-64. Stinson, E (2010). Eating the World: Food Literacy and its Place in Secondary School Classrooms. A Project Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF EDUCATION University of Victoria. Retrieved July 15, 2011 from 17 https://dspace.library.uvic.ca:8443/bitstream/handle/1828/2841/Project%20final%20for%20 D-Space.pdf?sequence=1 St. Leger, L. (2001). Schools, health literacy and public health: Possibilities and challenges. Health Promotion International, 16(2), 197-205. The Scottish Government (2011). Food and Health Excellence Group Report. Edinburgh: The Scottish Government. Retrieved July 19, 2011 from http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Education/Schools/curriculum/excellence/FoodandHealth Report UNESCO (2003). The Plurality of Literacy and its Implications for Policies and Programmes. Retrieved July 19, 2011 from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001362/136246e.pdf UNICEF (2000). Focusing Resources on Effective School Health (FRESH). Retrieved August 1, 2011 from http://www.unicef.org/lifeskills/files/FreshDocument.pdf Vidgen, H. & Galleos, D. (2001). What is food literacy and does it influence what we eat: A study of Australian food experts. QUT, Brisbane. Vileisis, A. (2008). Kitchen literacy: How we lost knowledge of where food comes from and why we need to get it back. Washington, DC: Island Press. Walter, L. (2009). Slow food and home cooking: toward a relational aesthetic of food and relational ethic of home provisions. The Journal of the Center for Food in Community and Culture, 1, 1-23. Wanless, D. (2002). Securing our future health: taking a long-term view. London: HM Treasury. Warde, A., Cheng, S., Olsen, W. & Southerton, D. (2007). Changes in the Practice of Eating: A Comparative Analysis of Time‐Use. Acta Sociologica, 50(4), 363‐385. Watkins, C. (2003) Learning: a sense-maker’s guide. London: Association of Teachers and Lecturers. Weaver-Hightower, M. B. (2011). Why Education Researchers Should Take School Food Seriously. Educational Researcher, 40(1), 15-20. Wilkins, J. L. (2005). Eating right here: moving from consumer to food citizen. Agricultural and Human Values. 22(3), 269-273. World Food Programme (2009). Two minutes to learn about… school meals. Retrieved August 1, 2011 from http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/newsroom/wfp199570.pdf World Health Organisation (2000). Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic. Geneva: World Health Organisation.