Research Paper in English Grade 11 HUMSS C, Essays (high school) of English

Download Research Paper in English Grade 11 HUMSS C and more Essays (high school) English in PDF only on Docsity! DR. CECILIO PUTONG NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL Carlos P. Garcia Ave, Tagbilaran City, 6300 Bohol HUMAN ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM DISCIPLINE AND IDEAS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES SUBMITTED BY: MARC VIN IBALE 11 HUMSS C NOVEMBER 2021 Human-Environment Interactions in Population and Ecosystem Health Authors and Affiliations: Alison P. Galvani, Chris T. Bauch, Madhur Anand, Burton H. Singer, and Simon A. Levin 1. «Center for Infectious Disease Modeling and Analysis, Yale School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510; 2. *Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511; 3. ‘Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada N2L 3G1; 4. «School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada N1G 2W1; 5. Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0009; 6. ‘Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544-1003 PNAS December 20, 2016 113 (51) 14502-14506; first published December 12, 2016; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1618138113 As the global human population continues to grow, so too does our impact on the environment. The ingenuity with which our species has harnessed natural resources to fulfill our needs is dazzling. Even as we tighten our grip on the environment, however, the escalating extent of anthropogenic actions destabilizes long-standing ecological balances (1, 2). The dangers of mining, refining, and fossil fuel consumption now extend beyond occupational or proximate risks to global climate change (3). Among a plethora of environmental problems, extreme climate events are intensifying (4, 5). Storms, droughts, and floods cause direct destruction, but also have pervasive repercussions on food security, infectious disease transmission, and economic stability that take their toll for many years. For example, within weeks of the catastrophic wind and flood damage from the 2016 Hurricane Matthew in Haiti, there was a dramatic surge in cholera, among other devastating repercussions (6, 7). In a world where 1% of the population possesses 50% of the wealth (8), those worst affected by extreme climatic events and the aftermath are also the least able to rebound. Compounding the impact of natural disasters, our progressively more intimate interactions with fragmented environments (9) have given rise to an era of disease emergence and re- emergence at unprecedented rates, as exemplified by recent outbreaks of the Ebola and Zika viruses. Furthermore, globalization to an extent that includes the airline travel of over eight million people every day has enabled such disease outbreaks to disseminate rapidly and pose a threat far beyond their areas of origin (10). Addressing these challenges requires an understanding of coupled human-environment dynamics, whereby human activity modifies an environmental system (often detrimentally), and the resulting environmental repercussions then impact humans. In turn, these impacts can potentially spur a shift in human activity toward protection and restoration. For example, Lubchenco et al. (11) describe how overfishing has led to plummeting species diversity and abundance in ocean ecosystems. Recognizing these untenable practices, steps were taken to incentivize sustainable consumption that achieved the rebound of fish populations. Human— environment systems are not just complex and coupled, but also adaptive, in that human response to calamities can help restore environmental sustainability (12, 13). Sustainable and equitable solutions are required to address the interconnected challenges of protecting the health of the natural environment and protecting the health of human populations. Determining solutions that optimize trade-offs between short-term and long-term objectives of resource consumption and sustainability requires analyses of the multilayered interconnectedness of environmental, social, epidemiological, and political systems. conservation and keep the human-environment system perpetually in the vicinity of a dangerous tipping point. This danger underscores the need for long-term thinking to replace reactionary behavior. Hastings (28) emphasizes the importance of considering short- and long-term temporal dynamics, including time delays and tipping points that arise from population demography, in the recovery of ecological systems under alternative management practices. The time scale pertinent to optimizing outcomes of management and sustainability is highly dependent upon the specific ecological system in question. Hastings provides a broadly applicable optimization approach that addresses the issue of time scale for environmental management, ranging from invasive species to fisheries. Human-Environmental Health The field of epidemiology is rooted in ecological theory. The principles of species conservation are fundamental to infectious disease epidemiology, except the goal is reversed: we aim to push a pathogen species to extinction. The increasingly mobile and dense human population represents a continuously expanding niche for infectious diseases. Similarly, agricultural and domestic animal species have increased alongside humans, whereas most other species have declined. To an impressive extent, we have been able to keep pace with pathogen emergence and spread by virtue of our ingenuity, underlying the development of vaccines and therapeutics. Nonetheless, pharmaceutical innovations are only as effective as the degree to which humans are able and willing to adhere to the recommended implementation. Vaccine refusal has plagued the control of childhood disease and eradication efforts against polio (29). Also critical is population adherence to nonpharmaceutical interventions, such as animal movement bans during the United Kingdom foot-and-mouth outbreak and avoidance of the culturally important traditional burials during the West African Ebola outbreak. Frameworks, such as the one developed by Lubchenco et al. (11) to facilitate the alignment of otherwise opposing interests and enhance synergies between disparate entities in fisheries, are equally important to the arena of public health. The unifying One Health paradigm incorporates the human species as a component in an interdependent health ecosystem, where we can both affect and be affected by changes in the environment and in zoonotic communities. Within our lifetimes, we have seen HIV and Ebola jump from primates to humans, as well as antimicrobial resistance spread in response to our livestock care practices. Beyond these high-profile recent examples, many of history’s greatest scourges originated via zoonosis, including rabies, leprosy, and the bubonic plague. The One Health movement seeks to make the human connection to other species an explicit part of analysis and planning. In support of this paradigm, governmental agencies and academic organizations have devised a variety of ways for uniting expertise across traditionally separate fields, usually by economic quantification of projected costs and benefits. For example, the Indian state of Tamil Nadu has pioneered the establishment of a state-level One Health coordination committee. This committee brings together leaders from the human health, veterinary, and animal welfare sectors to develop rabies control strategies that transcend sectoral boundaries. To inform cooperative resource allocation and decision-making, Fitzpatrick et al. (30) were commissioned to evaluate the various strategies under consideration by this committee, quantifying the impact of veterinary sector efforts on human health. In comparison with economic analyses of rabies campaigns in sub- Saharan Africa, the vaccination coverage found to be effective and efficient for Tamil Nadu was also highly feasible to implement, even more so than rabies control strategies advocated by the World Health Organization and implemented in other countries. The case study of rabies control in Tamil Nadu demonstrates the value of even modest investments in zoonotic disease prevention, and highlights the importance of tailoring infectious disease control policies to specific settings. At the same time, Fitzpatrick et al.’s framework for the evaluation of the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of One Health strategies is applicable to other multisectoral solutions to address public health and environmental challenges. A controversial ethical issue underlying cost-effectiveness analysis specifically, and resource allocation trade-offs between different points in time generally, is the rate of discounting the future that should be applied to integrate both costs and values over time, given both uncertainty about future events and the opportunity costs from forgoing alternative investments. For considerations of health economics, the World Health Organization stipulates that a 3% annual discounting rate should be applied (31). This has become the standard in cost-effectiveness. However, compounding of the 3% discounting every year leads to diminishingly small valuation for the future beyond a couple of decades. This low valuation stands in contrast to the degree of concern that most people feel for the future that their children and their children’s children will experience. It has been argued that for environmental considerations, the discounting rate that is ethical to future generations should be extremely low, to properly treat the interests of future generations (32). Economic discounting is partly motivated by the uncertainty of what the future holds. Mechanistic and statistical models are often developed with the goal of predicting future trends in human-environment systems. The focus of several papers in this issue was predictive modeling, particularly how the interrelated dynamics of disease transmission and human behavior influence the ecology, evolution, and control of infectious diseases (29) across spatial, temporal, and organizational scales. Using a model of intrapatch disease spread and interpatch mobility, Castillo-Chavez et al. (33) illustrate the limitations of existing theoretical frameworks with respect to modeling such complex adaptive systems. The authors call for the formulation of improved theoretical frameworks that can encompass such processes and disentangle the role of epidemiological and socio-economic forces. Although there is overwhelming evidence for anthropogenic climate change, the multilayered repercussions on physical and biological systems are likely so extensive that they are still being realized. As an example of this concern, Fisman et al. (34) identify externalities of climate change on disease trends in the United States that have previously gone unappreciated. Specifically, their analysis of temporal trends of hospitalization data reveals that vector-borne and enteric disease in the United States are impacted by climatic shifts associated with El Nifio Southern Oscillations. Given that this relationship between climate change and vector-borne, as well as enteric diseases, is significant even in a country with high levels of sanitation and relatively low prevalence of these diseases, the influence of climate change on such diseases are expected to be even greater in developing countries. Becker et al. (35) point out that modeling-coupled human— environment interactions requires understanding how natural system dynamics unfold at both small and large spatial scales, such as individual households versus entire cities. Applying a stochastic disease transmission model to a 1904 measles outbreak in London, as well as to the 2014-2015 Disneyland, California measles outbreak, Becker et al. find that disease transmission within schools and within age classes is higher than has been estimated from population-level serological analyses. Population dynamics not only vary at different spatial scales, as in Becker et al. (35), and at different time scales, as in Hastings (28), but can also be affected by rapid evolutionary processes. Lewnard and Townsend (36) demonstrate that the evolution of disease resistance in a disease vector can drive shifts in outbreak seasonality. To capture these complex interactions, they analyze extensive data from the Indian Plague Commission on climate, rat infection and resistance, and survival of flea vectors at different temperatures. Integrating this data into a model that combines environmentally forced plague dynamics with selection for a quantitative resistance trait in rats, Lewnard and Townsend demonstrate that the observed phase shifts in epidemic dynamics were modulated by the evolution of resistance over time. Moreover, incorporating the evolution of plague resistance among rats into their model reproduces observed changes in seasonal epidemic patterns. Furthermore, it captures experimentally observed associations between climate and flea population dynamics in India. Similar to Becker et al. (35), Lewnard and Townsend (36) demonstrate that historical datasets can yield insights into the epidemiological, ecological, and evolutionary dynamics of re-emerging disease agents, insights that will help to guide the design of preparedness and response strategies that mitigate future outbreaks. The Need for Cooperation in Protecting Human-Environment Systems Fragile ecosystems are subject not only to conflicts between short-term rewards and long- term conservation goals, but also are subject to the vagary of human responses to environmental challenges. Given that many environmental problems—including those explored in this issue—represent a common pool resource problem (14), their solution will require improved cooperation between humans. The human mind has spent most of its evolutionary history in a hunter-gatherer setting, and it is in this localized setting that our penchant for cooperation evolved. Consequently, a pressing challenge for the current phase in the evolutionary journey of our species is to promote the scale-up of cooperation far beyond localized settings. Cross-sectoral, collaborative, and integrated approaches can be powerful tools to bolstering the sustainability, resiliency, and equitability of natural resources within and between generations globally. Public health, conservation, agricultural security, and economic development are deeply intertwined in ways that are not immediately obvious. Understanding the interplay is fundamental to the development of an architecture of incentives and rewards that aligns disparate interests to optimize outcomes over the long- term. In the precarious balance between improving the standard of living across the globe while minimizing the negative externalities associated with the resources that we extract to do so, it is imperative to identify synergies that make effective solutions cost-effective as well. The human species has unparalleled capacities of ingenuity, foresight, and compassion that can be used to direct the current trajectory of the world’s ecosystems from rapid deterioration and destabilization toward equity and sustainability. Critique: Human-environment systems are systems that incorporate both human and natural components to demonstrate intricate interactions and feedback between them. The DPSIR model is the most widely acknowledged framework for researching such systems (drivers, pressures, state, impact, response). This paradigm for human-environment systems recognizes human actions that exert pressure on the environment, as well as how these pressures alter the current condition of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. As a result, there are environmental consequences. In addition to social and economic systems As a result, human civilization tries to address problems in order to eliminate, diminish, or prevent the drivers and pressures, restore the state of the environment and mitigate impacts.