Reviewer for educational programs, Study Guides, Projects, Research of Education Planning And Management

Download Reviewer for educational programs and more Study Guides, Projects, Research Education Planning And Management in PDF only on Docsity! TABLE OF CONTENTS NUMBER CONTENTS PAGE PART 1- LECTURE NOTES 1 Child and Adolescent Development _| 3-22 2 Facilitating of Learning 23-27 3 Social Dimension of Education 28-50 4 The Teaching Profession 51-69 5 Curriculum Development 70-83 6 Educational Technology 84-113 7 Principles and Strategies of Teaching | 114-133 8 Assessment of Learning 134-165 9 PART 2- PRACTICE TEST 166-234 10 PART 3- ANSWER KEY 235-244 PART 1 LECTURE NOTES CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT A. The Child and Adolescent Learner Childhood- Childhood is defines as the time for a boy or girl from birth until he or she is an adult. It is more circumscribed period of time from infancy to the onset of puberty. The Convention of the Rights if the Child defines a child as” every human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier”. Adolescence- According to Stuart Judge, a noted educator and psychologist, adolescence is the period of transition from childhood to adulthood. Although sometimes described as beginning in parallel with fertility or puberty and ending with maturity and independence, adolescence has a very variable and imprecise duration The onset of adolescence cannot be pointed in physiological term, although it is influenced by the same sex hormones and refers to the same general period as physical sexual development. It represents a complex and sometimes disturbing psychological transition, accompanying the requirement for the accepted social behavior of the particular adult and culture. B. Physical and Motor Development. A. Physical and Motor development “Infants need to learn how to move and to use their bodies to perform various tasks, a process better known as motor development. Initially, babies’ movements are simply the uncontrolled, reflexive movements they are born with, over time, they learn to move their body parts voluntarily to perform both gross (large) and fine (small) motor skills. In general, babies begin developing motor skills form head to tail (cephalocaudal), the center of the body outward( proximodistal). They learn to control their head and neck before they learn to maneuver their arms; they learn to maneuver their arms before they learn to manipulate their fingers. Babies learn to move their torso before the learn how to move their arms and legs. “The sucking reflex allows babies to drink milk and nourish themselves in the days of life. “Another permanent and life-supporting reflex is heard turning in the first days of life. “Another permanent life-supporting reflex is head turning. This reflex allows a baby to turn his head if something (a blanket, pillow, or stuffed animal) is blocking his airflow. “Another reflex that also babies survive is the rooting reflex. When babies root, they may nuzzle their face and mouth into the caregiver’s chest or shoulder. “The rest of the flexes have less survival value but are still notable. For the first 3 to 4 months, babies have an amazing grasping ability and reflex. They will grasp anything place in their palm and hold it with amazing strength for their size. Some Early Sensory Stimulation- Toys, soothing sounds and other sensorial stimulation contribute to the child’s development. D. Exceptional Development Physical Disabilities- Persons with physical disabilities may experience functional, visual, orthopedic, motor, or hearing impairments, which may impact upon their ability to walk, play and learn. Physical disabilities are also often defined and categorized by some degree of limitation in the use of upper or lower extremities and maintaining posture and positioning. Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD)- Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Hyperkinetic Disorder (as officially know in U.K., through ADHD is more commonly used) is generally considered to be a developmental disorder, largely neurological in nature, affecting about 5% of the world’s population. The disorder typically presents itself during childhood, and is characterized by a present pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity, as well as forgetfulness, poor impulse control or impulsivity and distractibility, ADHD is currently considered to be a persistent and chronic condition for which no medical cure is available ADHD is most commonly diagnosed in children and, over the past decade. E. Linguistic and Literary Development A. Natural History and Language Development Language development is a process that starts early in human life, when a person begins to acquire language by learning it as it is spoken and by mimicry. Children’s language development moves from simplicity to complexity. Infants start without language. Yet by four months of age, babies can read lips and discriminate speech sounds. Usually, language starts off as recall of simple words without associated meaning, but as children age, words acquire meaning, and connections between words are formed, in time, sentences start to form as words are joined together to create logical meaning. As a person gets older, new meaning and new associations are created and vocabulary increases as more words are learned. “Infant use their bodies, vocal cries and other preverbal vocalizations to communicate their wants, needs and dispositions. Even though most children begin to vocalize and eventually verbalize at various ages and at different rates, they learn their first language without conscious instruction from parents or caretakers. It is seemingly effortless task that grows increasingly difficult with age. Ofcourse, before any learning can begin, the child must be biologically and socially mature enough. Biological Preconditions- Linguist do not all agree on what biological factors contribute to language development, how ever most do agree that our ability to acquire such a complicated system is specific to the human species, Furthermore, our ability to learn language may have been developed through the evolutionary process and that the foundation for language may be passed down genetically. Second Preconditions- it is crucial that children are allowed to socially interact with other peope who can vocalize and respond to questions. For language acquisition to develop successfully, children must be in an environment that allows them to communicate socially in that language. There are a few different theories as to why and how children develop language. The most popular explanation is that language is acquired through imitation. However, this proves to be more of a folk tale than anything. Two most accepted theories in language development are psychological and functional. Psychological explanations focus on the mental processes involved in childhood language learning. Functional explanations look at the social process involved in learning the first language. B. Bilingual Language Development “ There are two major patters in bilingual language acquisition; simultaneous Bilingualism and Sequential bilingualism. In simultaneous bilingualism, the child acquires two languages at the same time before the age of 3 years. These children may mix words or parts of words from both languages in the first stage. Stage 2 occurs at 4 years and older when distinction between the two languages takes place, and the child uses each language separately. Sequential bilingualism also occurs before the child is 3 years old, but the child can draw in on the knowledge and experience of first language while acquiring the second language. “ Detecting delays in the speech and language of multilingual children presents a challenge. The authors state that “the key is to obtain information about the child’s entire language system, not just the primary or secondary language”. “ The following “red flags” may indicates that the child who is simultaneously acquiring two languages id experiencing problems with language development. v Nosounds by 2-6 months v Less than one new words per week for 6-15 month-old children. v Less than 20 words ( in the two languages combined by 20 months: and Y Nouse of word combinations and a very limited vocabulary by age 2-3 years v Red flags for abnormal language development in the sequential acquisition of two language include. v Lack of normal milestones in the first language v Prolonged phase of not talking v Difficulty of retrieving words Factors Affecting Language Development Inadequate stimulation (talking and playing with the child) Delayed general development (global developmental delay), physical development motor skills), cognitive development etc. 3. Specific difficulty with language learning. Not very interested in language, prefers other modalities e.g. physical activities Poor control and/or coordination of the speech muscles; lips, tongue etc. Medical problems Inadequate awareness of communication, lacks” communication intent” Reduced hearing e.g. ear infection, fluid in ear, impacted earwax etc. Changes in child’s environment e.g. moving PnNaus,p 6 9. Exposure to too many languages for the child 10. Inadequate opportunity for speech e.g. the child everyone talks for, the “babied” child has a more dominant sibling etc. 11. Emotional factors e.g. behavioral problems, anxiety, pressure to perform etc. 12. Short attention span. 13. Family history of speech and language delays or difficulties C. Exceptional Development Aphasia- Aphasia (or aphmia) is a loss of the ability to produce and/or comprehend language due to injury to brain areas specialized for these functions. It is not a result of deficits in sensory, intellect, or psychiatric functioning. Depending on the area and extent of the damage, someone suffering from aphasia may be able to speak but not write, or vice versa, or display any of wide variety of other deficiencies in language comprehension and production, such as being able to sing but not to speak. Dyslexia-Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that manifests primarily as a difficulty with written language, particularly with reading and spelling. Dyslexia is the result of a neurological differences but is not intellectual disability. Most people with dyslexia have average or above average intelligence. Evidence suggests that dyslexia results for differences in how the brain processes written and/or verbal language. It is separate and distinct from reading difficulties resulting from other causes, such as deficiencies in intelligence, a non-neurological deficiency with vision or hearing, or from poor or inadequate reading instruction. D. Cognitive Development A. Theories of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget-Swiss psychologist (1896-1980). His theory provided many central concepts in the field of developmental psychology and concerned the growth of the intelligence, which for Piaget, meant the ability to more accurately represent the world and perform logical operations on representations of the concepts grounded in the world. The theory concerns the emergence and acquisitions of the schemata-schemes, of one perceives the world-in”developemental stages”, time when children are acquiring new ways of mentally representing -information. 1. Sensorimotor period (years 0-2) Infants are born with a set of congenital reflexes, according to Piaget, in addition to explore their world. Their initial schemas are formed through differentiation of the congenital reflexes: The first sub-stage, known as the reflex schema stage, occurs form birth to six weeks and is associated primarily with the developmental reflexes. Three primary reflexes are described by Piaget: sucking of objects in the mouth following moving or interesting objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand when an object makes contact with the palm (palmar grasp). Over this first six 7 5. Inability to Conserve-though Piaget’s conservation experiments (conservation of mass, volume and number after the original for m has been changed. For example, a child in this phase will believe that a string which has up in’o-o-o-o” pattern will have a larger number of beads than a string which has a oooo: pattern, because the latter pattern has less space between Os; or that a tall, thin 8-ounce cup has more liquid in it than a wide, short 8-ounce cup. 6. Animism- The child believes that inanimate objects have lifelike” qualities and are capable of action. Example, a child plays with a doll and treats it likes a real person. In a way this like using their imagination. 3. Concrete operational period (years 7-11) The Concrete operational stage is the third of four stages of cognitive development in Piaget’s theory. This stage, which follows the Preoperational stage, occurs between the ages 7 and 11 years and is characterized by the appropriate use of logic. Important process during this stage are: a. Seriation- the ability to arrange objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other characteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a colour gradient. b. Classification-the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another, a child is no longer subject to the illogical limitations of animasim (the belief that all objects are alive and therefore have feelings) c. Decentering- where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it. For example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than a normally-wide, taller cup. d. Reversibility- where the child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to their original state. For this reason, a child will be able to rapidly determine that if 4 +4 equals 8, 8/4 will equal 4, the original quantity e. Conservation- understanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items. For instance, when a child is presented with two equally-sized, full cup they will be able to discern that if water is transferred to a pitcher it will conserve the quantity and be equal to the other filled up. f. Elimination of Egoncentrism- the ability to view things from another’s perspective (even if they think incorrectly). For instance, show a child a comic in whom Jane puts a doll under the box leaves the room, and then Sarah moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A child in the concrete operation stage will 10 stay that Jane will still think it’s under the box even through the child knows it is in the drawer 4. Formal operation period (years 11-adulthood) The formal operational period is the fourth and final of the periods of cognitive development in the Piaget’s theory. This stage, which follows the Concrete Operational stage, commences at around 11 years of age ( puberty) and continuous into adulthood. It is characterized by acquisition of the ability to think abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from the information available. During this stage the young adult is able to understand such things as love”shades of gray”, logical proofs, and values, Lev Vtgotsky-Psychologist, was born in 1896 in Orsha, Belarys (then a part of the Russian Empire). Vygotsky was tutored privately by Solomom Asphiz and graduated from Moscow State University in 1917. Later, he attended the Institute of Pyschology in Moscow (1924-34), where he worked extensively on ideas about cognitive development, particularly the relationship between language and thinking. His writings emphasized the roles of historical cultural, and social factors in cognition and argued that language was the most important symbolic tool provided by society. Perhaps Vygotsky’s most important contribution concerns the inter-relationship of language development and thought. This concept, explored in Vygotsky’s book “Thinking and Speaking”, establishes the explicit and profound connection between speech (both silent inner speech and oral language), and the development of mental concepts and cognitive awareness. It should be noted that Vygotsky described inner speech as being qualitatively different than normal (external) speech, For Vygotsky, social interaction is important for learning, e.i. children learn adults and other children Information Processing Theory There are three primary stages in IP Theory: Encoding- information is sensed, perceived, and attended . Storage- the information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time depending upon the processes following encoding “ Retrieval- The information is found at the appropriate time, and reactivated fr use on a current task, the true test of effective memory. The initial appeal of information processing theories was the idea that cognitive processes could be described in a stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a path along which information is taken into the memory system, and reactivated when necessary. Most theories of information processing center around three main stages in the memory process. Sensory Register The first step in the IP model, hold ALL sensory information fora VERY BRIEF time period. 14 Capacity: we hold an enormous amount, more that we can ever perceive. “Duration: Extremely brief- in order of 1 to 3 seconds The Role of Attention To move information into consciousness, we need to attend to it. That is, we only have the ability to perceive and remember later those things that pass through the attention gate. Short Term Memory ( working Memory) Capacity: What you can say about in 2 seconds. Often said to be 7+/_2 items. “ Duration: Around 18 seconds or less “To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to rehearse “There are two types of rehearsal- Maintenance and Elaborative Long Term Memory The final storing house of memorial information, the long term memory store holds information until needed again. Capacity: unlimited? “Duration: indefinite? Executive Control Processes Also known as executive processor, or Metacognitive skills Guide the flow of information through the system, helps the learner make informed “ Example processes-attention, rehearsals, organization, Sometimes call METACOGNITVE SKILLS Forgeting The ability to access information when needed There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs: * Decay-Information is not attended to, and eventually fades away. Very prevalent in Working memory. “ Inference-New or old information blocks’ access to the information in question. Methods for Increasing the Probability of Remembering Organization- info that is organized efficiently should be recalled “ Deep processing- This is focusing upon meaning. “ Elaboration- Connecting new info with old, to gain meaning. “ Generation- Things we produce are easier to remember than things we hear. ~Context-Remembering the situation helps recover information “ Personalization- making the information relevant to the individual “ Memory Methods “Memorization (note the same as learning) 12 Despite evidence and support of cognitive intelligence theories, a major problem remains regarding the nature of intelligence. Cognitive theories do not take into account that the description of intelligence may differ from one cultural group to another. Even within mainstream cultures, it will known that conventional tests do not reliably predict performance. Therefore in addition to cognition, the context in which the cognition operates also needs to be accounted for. Exceptional Development ( Cognitive Development) Giftedness- For many years, psychometricians and psychologists, following the footsteps of Lewis Terman in 1916, equated giftedness with high IQ. This “legacy” survives to the present day, in that giftedness and high IQ continue to be equated in some conceptions of giftedness. Since that early time, however, other researchers (e.g, Cattell, Guilford, and Thurnstone) have argued that intellect cannot be expressed in such a unitary manner, and have suggested more multifaceted approaches to intelligence. Research conducted in the 1980s has provided data which support notions of multiple components to intelligence. This is particularly evident in the examination of “giftedness” by Stenberge and Davidson in their edited Conceptions of Giftedness. The many different conceptions of giftedness presented, although distinct, are interrelated in several ways. Most of the investigators define giftedness in terms of multiple qualities, not all of which are intellectual, IQ socres are often viewed as in adequate measures of giftedness. Motivation, high self concept, and creativity are they key qualities in many of these broadened conceptions of giftedness. Mental Retardation- is a term for a pattern of persistently slow learning of basic motor and language skills (“milestones”) during child hood, and a significantly below-normal global intellectual capacity as an adult. One common criterion for diagnosis of mental retardation is tested intelligence quotient (IQ ) of 70 or below and deficits in adaptive functioning. People with mental retardation may be described as having developmental disabilities, global development delay or learning qualities. Autism- is a brain development disorder characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication, and restricted and repetitive behavior, all exhibited before a child is three years old. These characteristics distinguish autism form milder spectrum disorder (ASD). Autism affects many parts of the brain, how this occurs is poorly understood. Parents usually notice signs in the first year or two of their child’s life, Early intervention may help children gain self-care and social skills, although few of these interventions are supported by scientific studies. There is no cure, with severe autism, independent living is unlikely; with milder autism, there are some success stories for adults, and an autistic culture has developed, with some seeking a cure and others believing that austism is a condition rather than a disorder. Asperger’s Syndrome- (also Asperger’s Syndrome, Asperger’s disorder, Asperger’s AS, or AD ) is one of several autism spectrum disorders (ASD) characterized by difficulties in social 45 interaction and by restricted and stereotyped interests and activities. AS is distinguished for other ASDs in having no general delay in language or cognitive development, There is no single treatment for AS, and the effectiveness of particular interventions is supported by only limited data. Intervention is aimed at improving symptoms and function. The mainstay of treatment is behavioral therapy, focusing on specific deficits to address poor communication skills, obsessive or repetitive routines, and clumsiness. Most individuals with AS can learn to cope with their differences, but may continue to need moral support encouragement to maintain an independent life. Adults with AS have reached the highest levels of achievement in fields such as mathematics, physics and computer science, Researchers and people with AS have contributed to a shift in attitudes away from the notion that AS is a difference rather than a disability. Down Syndrome_ Down syndrome or Trisonomy 21 ( usuall Down’s Syndrome in Bristish English) is a specific disorder caused by the presence of all or part if an extra 21* chromosome. It is named after John Longdon Down, the Bristish doctor who described it in 1866. The condition is characterized by a combination of major and minor differences in structure. Often Down syndrome is associated with some impairment of cognitive ability and physical growth as well as facial appearance. Down syndrome can be identifies during pregnancy or at birth. Individuals with Down syndrome can have a lower than average cognitive ability, often ranging form mild to moderate learning disabilities. Developmental disabilities often manifests as tendency toward concrete thinking or naivete. A small number have severe to profound mental disability. The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 800 to 1,00 births. Social and Emotional Development Theories of Socio-Emotional Development Erik Homburger Erikson (1902-1994) was a German developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on social development of human beings, and for coing the phrase identity crisis. “Each of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are marked by a conflict, for which successful resolution will result in a favorable outcome, for example, trust vs. mistrust, and by an important event that is conflict resolves itself around, for example, meaning of one’s life. “Favorable outcomes of each stage are sometimes known as “ virtues”, a term used, in the context of Erikson work, as it is applied to medicines, meaning” potencies”For example, the virtue that would emerge from successful resolution. Oddly, and certainly counter-intuively, Erikson’s research reveals with breath-taking clarity how each individual must learn how to hold both extremes of each specific life-stage challenge in tension with one another not rejecting one end of the tension or the other. Only when both extremes in a life-stage challenge are understood and accepted as both required and useful, can the optimal virtue for that stage surface. Thus, “trust” and “mistrust” must both the understood and accepted, in order for realistic “hope” to 16 emerge as a viable solution at the first stage. Similarly,”integrity” and “despair” must both be understood and embraced, in order for actionable wisdom to emerge as a viable solution at the last stage. The Erikson life-stage virtues, in order of the stages in which they may be acquired are: Hope- basic Trust vs. Mistrust Will- Autonomy vs, Shame and Doubt Purpose- Initiative vs.Guilt Competence- Industry vs. Inferiority Fidelity-Identity vs. Role Confusion Love- (in intimate relationships, work and family ) Intimacy vs, Isolation Caring- Generativity vs, Stagnation Wisdom- Integrity vs. Despair Albert Bandura ( Social Cognitive Theory) * Bandura bases his theory on the acquisition of complex behaviors on a triangular diagnram illustrating the interactive effect of various factors. These three factors are behavior (B), the environment (E), and the internal events that influence perceptions and actions. (P). the relationship between these three factors is known as reciprocal determinism. Bandura identified three types of rienforcers of behavior. These were direct reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement and self reinforcement. Direct reinforcement would be directly experienced by the learner. Vicarious reinforcement would be observed to be consequences of the behavior of the model. Self reinforcement would be feelings of satisfaction or displeasure for behavior gauged by personal performance standards. Bandura describes three types of modeling stimuli, which are live models, symbolic models, and verbal descriptions or instructions. Of these three, in American society, the greatest range of exposure is in the form of symbolic models through mass media. In Bandura’s later work he introduces two other aspects to his Social Learning Theory. These are his work on the self regulatory system and self efficacy. In the area of self regulatory system/ self evaluative behaviors he said that this system us based upon cognitive subprocesses that: - Perceive - Evaluate - Regulate behavior Social Cognitive Theory- Utilized both in Psychology and Communications posits that portions of an individual’s knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences 17 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity (The good boy/good girl attitude) 4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation (Law and order morality) Level 3 ( Post- Conventional) 5. Social contract orientation 6. Universal ethical principles (Principled conscience) Carol Gilligan- her fame rests primarily on in a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development (1982) in which she criticized Kohlberg’s research on the moral development of used children. Which at the time showed that girls on average reached a lower level of moral development than boys did. Giligan pointed out that the participants in Kohlberg’s basic study were largely male, and that the scoring method Kohlberg used tended to a favor a principled way of reasoning that was more common to boys, over a moral argumentation concentrating on relations, which would be more amenable to girls. Kohlberg saw reason to revise his scoring method as a result of Gilligan’s critique, after which boys and girls scored evenly. Her work formed the basis for what has become known as the ethics of care, a theory of ethics that contrasts ethics of care to so-called ethics of justice. Factors Affecting Development The following are some major factors affecting the social and emotional development of children and adolescents: “% Media “Parenting “Role Models “Peer groups Exceptional Development in the Area of Social Development Leadership- the ability of an individual to influence, motivate and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members. Juvenile Deliquency- Juvenile delinquency may refer to either violent or non-violent crime committed by persons who are (usually) under the age of eighteen and are still considered to be a minor. There is much debate about whether or not such a child should be held criminally responsible foe his or her own actions. There are many different inside influences that are believed to affect the way a child acts both negatively and positively, some of which are as follows: “Abandonment “Social institutions “Peer pressure 20 Affective and Mode Disorders- The mood or affective disorders are mental disorders that primarily affect mood and interfere with the activities of daily living. Usually it includes major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar disorder ( also called Manic Depressive Psychosis. FACILITATING HUMAN LEARNING Understanding Learning and Knowledge Acquisition Definition of learning- is the acquisition and development of memories and behaviors, including skills, knowledge, understanding, values and wisdom. It is the goal of education, and the product of experience. It is therefore a relatively permanent change in behavior. Other Definitions: 1. A process inferred from relatively stable changes in behavior that result through practice of interaction with and adaptation to the environment (Goodwin and Klausmeier) 2. The development of new associations as a result of experience ( Good and Grophy). 3. The modification of an organism’s behavior as a result of maturation and environmental experience. 21 Theories of Learning A. Edward Thorndike’s Connectionis,/Associationism Theory: Human activity is based on association between stimulus and response. a. Law of effect b. Law of exercise c. Law of readiness B. Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov): It is based on ADHESIVE principle which means that a response is attached to a stimulus through the stimulus occurring just prior to he response so that the recurrence of the stimulus will evoke or cause the response. (ex. Dog’s salivation experiment) C. Operant Conditioning (BF Skinner) Organism has to do something in order to get reward that is, it must operate on its environment. * Reinforcement: is any behavioral consequence that strengthens behavior. It increases the likelihood of the recurrent of a particular type of response. Types of reinforcement: -Positive Reinforcement: These reinforcers increase frequency. -Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior by their removal. -Primary Reinforcement: food, water, sleep -Secondary Reinforcement: money, grades, starts, tokens etc. D. Social Learning Theory ( Albert Bandura) —plus emphasis on OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING. E. Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Theory- Gaining insight is a gradual processes of exploring analyzing and restructuring perceptions until a solution is arrived at. F. Gestalt Theoru (Kohlerm Wertheimer and Koffka)- The primary focus of this theory is on PERCEPTION and how people assign meanings to visual stimuli,”The whole is more than the sum of all its parts” G. Kurt Lewin’s Topological and Vector Theory (Field Theory)- the behavior of an individual at a given moment is the result of existing forces operating simultaneously in his life space. (Internal and External forces). H. Jerome Bruner’s Theory- Also known as Instrumental Conceptualism. Leaming involves 3 simultaneously processes: acquisition transformation and evaluation. I. Information processing Theory- The theory describes the psychological events in terms of transformations of information form input to output. It stresses the value of perception, attention and memory in the learning process. Type of Learning: 22 giving back”. This model if intrinsic motivation has emerged from three decades of research by hundreds of educationalists and still evolving. In work environments, money is typically viewed as an important goal ( having food, clothes etc) may well be more powerful than the direct motivation provided by an enjoyable worklace. Learning styles vs. learning strategies. Issues regarding learning style are somewhat related, i.e students that willing and able to think in more abstract terms and/or to critically examine what they do may show better performance. A learning style refers to the relationship between individuals and their ways of learning whereas learning strategies refer to attitudes and behavior that is oriented towards goals . As an example, one could compare/oppose. Learning style Learning strategy Self-assessment Self-assessment Field-dependent Field- independent Cognitive level Plus meta-cognitive level Learner preference Learner competence Socio-cultural Dimensions of Learning Theories of Situated Learning Situated learning has antecedents in the work of Gibson (theory of affordances) and Vygotsky ( social learning). In addition, the theory of Schoenfield on mathematical problem solving embodies some of the critical elements of situated learning framework. Situated learning is a general theory of knowledge acquisition. It has been applied in the context of technology-based learning activities for schools that focus in problem-solving skills. Principles of Situated Learning: 1. Knowledge needs to be presented in an authentic context, i.e, setting and applications that would normally involve that knowledge 2. Learning requires social interaction and collaboration. Individual Differences in Learning Multiple Intelligences The theory of multiple intelligence was developed in 1983 by Dr, Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential inchildren and adults. Learning Preferences Visual/Verbal 25 Visual/Nonverbal Tactile/Kinesthetic Auditory Verbal Characterizing Students with Special Learning Needs An exceptional child is one that is different in some way form the” normal” ot”average” child. The term “exceptional child” includes those with special problems related to physical disabilities, sensory impairments, emotional disturbances, leaming disabilities and metal retardation. Most exceptional children require a lot of understanding and patience as well as special education and related services if they are to reach their full potential development. SOCIOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION Sociologist offer different theoretical perspective that are anchored on the concept that school is an open system to explain the relationship between the school and the society. The diverse sociological explanations enable educators to understand how the school, as a social institution of society, interacts with social environment as they perform their important role in their unique way either as agents of cultural and social transmission or as agents of social transformation. The Nature of Education Sociology provides educators as special perspective in studying the school and society. Schools, by their nature are social organizations. Because of the nature of education, the study of school systems becomes the concern of sociologists. Sociologist study the social issues and concerns in education which impact on socialization. 26 The Role of Schools Dr. Adelaida Bago, in her book Social Dimensions in the Philippine Education, stresses there are two possible purpose or roles of schools: 1. There are those who believe that one role of the school is to educate citizens to fit into society 2. There are those who believe that the role of the school is to educate citizens to change the society The Specific purposes of the school are the following: Cognitive Purposes- teaching the basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing and speaking. Political Purposes- inculcation of patriotism or loyalty to the existing political order. Social Purposes- concerns with the socialization of citizens into their various roles in society. Economic Purposes- involves training and preparation of citizens for the world of work. aoe Pp School as Open System School are open systems that draw their inputs and send back their outputs to the environment. An open system, like a living organism, has a homeostatic nature. Homeostasis is the property of open system to regulate its internal environment to maintain stable constant condition. This is done through internal regulation mechanisms of inter-related and interaction parts that counteract any departure from the normal or usual. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE To provide logical explanations for why things happen the way they do in group situations, sociologists make use of theoretical perspective. These theories also become the basis for analyzing curriculum, instruction and structure in the school organization. The functionalist and Conflict Theories focus macro-level sociological analysis, while the interaction theory focuses on the micro level analysis. 1. The Functionalist Theory- (other known as equilibrium theory). The key terms in of society. Social equilibrium is achieved through the process of socialization of members into the basic values norms of particular group so that consensus is reached. The different parts or members of the society are interdependent grouped and organized to form a system. a. Talcot Parsons- conceptualized society as a collection of systems within systems (McLeland, 2000) b. Emile Durkheim- believed that education plays a significant roles in creating, moral unity, which is an imperative in social cohesion and harmony, Durkheim defined education and the concerns of sociology as follows: “ Education is the influence exercised by adult generations on those that are not yet ready for social life, its object is to arouse and to develop in the child a certain number of physical, intellectual and moral states which are demanded of him by both the political society as a whole and special milieu for which he is specifically destined.. 27 Audience or mass- members act together on the basis of a common attitudes without interaction among members; like people at film showing. Public-this refers a number of people in some form of community come to a common agreement who have common interest but do not necessarily come to a common agreement. Social Institutions Social Institution Defined: According to Anthony Giddens, Social Institutions are” enduring features of social life”. It is a complex of positions, norms and social relations performing a social role. Social institutions includes government, families, and other groups of people with recognizable social interaction and norms of conduct. Characteristics: FYNE Social Purpose-institution satisfy social needs Permanence-institution are relatively permanent Enforcing rules and regulations- institution governs behavior Promotes values- institution exerts social pressure regarding right conduct Major Social Institutions 1. Family — is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity and co-residence. It is the smallest social institution. One of the primary function of the family is to produce and reproduce persons both biologically and socially (in cases of adoption). a. Conjugal Family-includes the husband, wife, and children who are not of age yet. b. Consanguinity F amily- consist of a parent and his or her children, and other people. c. Matrilocal Family- consists of a mother and her children Education Transmission of knowledge is the primary purpose of education. As a social institution school has the following purpose. 1. Intellectual-schools teach basic knowledge and skills commonly known as the 3 Rs and eventually developing their HOTS (higher order thinking skills) 2. Political-schools develop allegiance to the country and promotes patriotism 3. Social-schools develop person’s ability to interact with fellow human being 4. Economic-schools prepare the person to achieve suitable occupational endeavors. Religion According to Stark religion is the “socially defined patterns of beliefs concerning the ultimate meaning of life; it assumes the existence of the supernatural” Characteristics: 30 Belief in the higher being (deity) Doctrine of salvation A code of conduct . Religious rituals Government A government is an institution entrusted with making and enforcing the rules of a society as well as with regulating relations with other societies. In order to be considered a government, a ruling body must be recognized as such by the people it purpose to govern. Pwnr Types of Government a. Democracy b. Monarchy c. Authoritarianism d. Totalitarianism Social Problems- growing groups and countries experience various societal problem brought about by various factors. xj KKK KKK KS Social Juvenile delinquency Crime Alcoholism Suicide Drug addiction Racial prejudice Industrial conflict Poverty Graft and corruption Control- refers to the ways in which members of a society influence one another so as to maintain social order. Informal Social Control = Mores and folkways = Expectations not written down but perceived and made known to him = Pressure to conform = Internalizing the values and attitudes of family = Helping the child to understand and norms of the bigger group = Desire for acceptance of the bigger group Formal Social Control = Passage of law = Formal mechanism to maintain control over the behavior of its members = Tendency to level an individual who is out of line and gossip = Curbing anti-social attitudes by disallowing privacy or ascribing undesirable status to deviants. 31 Social process- sociologist have noted that social change occurs in patterns and these patterns are called social process, this is also used to interpret social behavior. Classification of Social Process Competition- an impersonal attempt to gain scare and valued resources of wealth, land etc. Conflict- involves the use of deliberate power Accommodation-is the conscious adjustment and compromise among conflicting groups to live without conflict Assimilation-is the learning and acceptance by one group of the beliefs and values of another groups so that they gradually become virtually indistinguishable. Characteristics of Culture Culture is Learned Pakikipagkapwatao Family orientation Joy and humor Flexibility, adaptability, creativity Hardwork and industry Faith and religiosity Ability to survive PNA PWN Weakness of the Filipino Character Extreme personalism Extreme family centeredness Lack of discipline Passivity and lack of initiative Colonial mentality Kanya-kanya syndrome Lack of self-analysis and self-reflection Neon PWN PILLARS OF LEARNING e The Four Pillars of Education all started with the report entitled” Learning the Treasure within” of the Intemational Commission of Education for the Twenty-first -Century chaired by Jacques Delors in 1996. It was published by the UNESCO. © The report itself provides new insights into education for the 21* century. It stresses that each individual must be equipped to seize learning opportunities throughout life broaden one’s knowledge, skills and attitudes, and adapt to a changing complex and interdependent world. LEARNING TO KNOW 32 Multicultural education embodies a perspective rather than a curriculum. Teachers must consider children’s cultural identities and be aware of their own biases Teachers and parents need to acknowledge the fact that we are inevitably influenced by the stereotypes and one-sided view of society that exists in our schools and the media. Hence, we must we recognized those biases and change the attitude they represent by accepting all children as we receive them. OPPRESSION- (racism or biased attitudes) a problem in multi cultural classes vs OPPENESS-developing as much effort to changing to learn about other’s culture, nurturing diversity by making multicultural education a process of action. LEGAL DIMENSIONS OF THE PHILIPPINE EDUCATION The educational system in terms of curriculum, instruction, structure and organization at any given period of history is defined by organic laws, acts, and policies crafted by legal and educational experts as well as national policy makers. These statutes provide direction and guidance to those involved in the educational system. NATIONAL COMMISSIONS 1. Monroe Survey (1925)- The work of the commission because the basis for reforms in administrative organization and supervision, basic and higher education, teacher education and training, language instruction, private education, finance and education of non-Christians. (martin, 1980) Swamson Survey (1959)- Two important recommendations of the Commission were the restoration of grade 7 and the provision of higher financing for schools. (Martin, 1980) PCSPE(1989)- Presidential Commission to Survey Philippine Education-recommendations of the commission include: 1. Mismatch between educational priorities and national development priorities. 2. Lack of systemic planning and evaluation in education became the basis for major reforms. EDCOM (1991) -Congressional Commission on Education-some of the radical changes that came about as a result of the EDCOM report were: the creation of the independent Commission on Higher Education (CHED), the professionalization of teachers through the creation of the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET), the clear definition of career service paths for teachers and administrators, the creation of the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority( TESDA). PCER (1999)- Presidential Commission on Educational Reform- the recommendations of the commission became the basis for the formulation of a package of policy and projects known as the Higher Education Development Project ( HEDP) SPECIFIC DECREES, ACTS &LAWS (Legalizing Philippine Education) 35 PROVISIONAL CONSTITUTION OF BIAK NA BATO Article XV- The Secretary of Interior was to take charge among other duties, with the advancement of the public instruction. a. Elimination of the friar control over all or most aspects of education b. Secularization of a universal system of primary education c. Greater supervision and control higher education by the state d. Implementation of a more modem and progressive educational system patterned ater western models THE MALOLOS CONSTITUTION (1899 Constitution) Article 23 not only contain instruction regarding the public schools; it also specifies the manner by which private schools maybe established in order to provide more access to education to a greater number of Filipinos. All primary education was offered free and compulsory in all schools in the country as explicitly stated in the constitution. “Any Filipino may establish and maintain institutions of learning, in accordance with the laws authorizing them, Public Education shall be free and obligatory in all schools of the nation” THE 1935 CONSTITUTION Article XIV- provides ”All schools shall aim to develop moral character, personal discipline, civic conscience, and vocational efficiency, and to teach the duties of citizenship” Article XIV, Sec 5; “All educational institution shall be under the supervision of a subject to regulation by the state. The government shall establish and maintain a complete and adequate system of public education, and shall provide at least free public primary instruction and citizenship training to adult citizens. The Japanese occupied the City of Manila in 1942. Subsequently, the Japanese dissolved the National Government and replaced it with Central Administrative Organization of the Japanes Army. The Japanese created the Department of Education, Health and Public Welfare with Claro M. Recto as commissioner. The Bureau of Private Education supervised private schools and colleges. The six basic principles of Japanese education basic principles of Japanese education in the Philippines include the following as enumerated by Bago. a. To make people understand the position of the Philippines as member of the EAST-ASIA. Co Prosperity Sphere. b. To eradicate the old idea of the reliance upon the western nations especially upon the United States and Great Britain, and to posters a new Filipino culture based on the self- consciousness of the people as Orientals c. To endeavor to evaluate the morals of the people, giving up the over emphasis on materialism d. To strive for the diffusion of the Japanese language in the Philippines and to terminate the use of English in due course. e. To put importance to the diffusion of elementary education and to the promotion of vocational education. f. To inspire the people with the spirit to love labor. THE 1973 CONSTITUITION 36 10. The 1973 constitution provided specific provisions on education in several sections that demonstrates the important role assigned to education in creating the New Society. Section 8 of Article XV provides that: “All educational institutions shall, be under the supervision of an subject to regulation by the state. The state shall establish and maintain a complete, adequate, and integrated system of education relevant to the goals of the national development”. Other education-related provisions are found in section 9 and 11. THE FREEDOM CONSTITUTION OF 1986 Article XV, Section 8 contained the specific provisions on education. Thus the educational system during the interim period was basically the same as the one operating under the Martial Law. THE 1987 CONSTITUTION Section 17 of the Constitution states:” The state shall give priority to education, science and technology, arts, culture, and sports to foster patriotism and nationalism, accelerate social progress, and promote total human liberation and development” This general principle was defined in sections 1-5 of article IV on Education, Science and Technology, Arts, Culture and Sports Education. THE ROYAL EDUCATIONAL DECREE OF 1863 In an attempt to correct the existing deficiencies in education, the Royal Educational decree of 1863 was promulgated. The main objective of the decree was to establish a system of elementary schools for the country and to provide training for teachers in order to “broaden as much as possible the teaching of the Holy Catholic Faith, of the language of the fatherland, and of the elementary knowledge of life.” EDUCATIONAL ACT OF 1901 In 1901, a few years after the establishment of the American Rule in the country, the Philippines Commission passed the first comprehensive school law for the Philippines. The main objective of the Educational Act of 1901, which is also known as Philippine Commission Act no.74 and considered as the “ Organic school law of the Philippines” was to establish a highly centralized educational system in the country. EDUCATIONAL ACT OF 1940 The educational act of 1940 during the Commonwealth period ushered a new era in educational history. The primary aim of the act was”to meet the increasing demand for public elementary instruction at the same time comply with the constitutional mandate on public education. EDUCATIONAL ACT OF 1982 The act provides for the establishment and maintenance of an integrated system of education (both formal and non-formal) relevant to the goals of national development. In recognition of the right of every individual to have equal access to relevant quality education. The act defines 37 Social Emotional Development Social emotional development, like cognitive development is the product of interaction between the biological and environmental factors. The social dimension refers to the interaction with others, while the emotional refers to feelings about oneself. Eric Erikson is known for “identity crisis”. He formulated a theory of social-emotional development based on his extensive experience in psychotherapy and dealings with children and adolescents from all social class levels. He proposed that socialization consists of “the eight stages of man” each stage involves a “psycho- social crisis”. Age Trust vs Mistrust Stage 0-11 year HOPE Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt 2-3 years WILL POWER Initiative vs Guilt 4-5 years PURPOSE Industry vs Inferiority 6 age of puberty COMPETENCY Industry vs Identity Diffusion 13-20 age of adolescence FIDELITY Intimacy vs Isolation Over 20, young adult LOVE Generativity vs Self- Absorption Adulthood CARE Integrity vs Despair Mature adulthood WISDOM Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg, proposed six stages of moral development. The first three of which share many features with the stages in the Piagetian model. He believes that moral development tales place through a series of six under three levels of development: 1. Pre-Conventional Level a. Stage 1-Obedience and Punishment Orientation b. Stage 2- Self-interest Orientation ( individualism, instrumentation and exchange) 2. Conventional Level c. Stage 3- Good boy/Good Girl Orientation (interpersonal accord and conformity) d. Stage 4- Law and Order Orientation (authority and social-order maintaining) 3. Post-Conventional Level e. Stage 5- Social Contract Orientations f. Stage 6- Principled Conscience Orientations Taxonomy of the Affective Domain Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia ( 1956) developed a taxonomy of objectives in the affective domain. Affective phenomena run through from simple behaviors to increasing more complex ones that require organization and characterization or internalization 40 CHARACTERIZATION ORGANIZATION VALUING ft RESPONDING RECFIVING (adapted from Krathwohl, D. Bloom, B, and Masia, B. (1964 ) Taxanomy of Educational Objectives) Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain Holistic education not only involves the development of the cognitive and affective domains. It also involves the development of the psychomotor domains which pertain to physical movement, perceptual abilities and non-verbal communication. Harrow ,A.J. developed a taxonomy of objectives for psychomotor with six categories: Reflex Movements- this includes segmental reflexes. Fundamental Movements- this include walking, running, jumping..etc. Perceptual Abilities-.this include kinesthetic, visual, auditory, tactile and coordination. Physical Abilities- involve endurance, strength, flexibility, agility, and dexterity. Skilled Movements- these are the movements necessary in games, sports, dances and the arts. Non-Discursive Communications- these relate to expressive movements through posture, gestures, facial expressions and creative movement. PA PwWN EP HISTORICAL DIMENSION OF EDUCATION Education is as old as life itself. No one can present an accurate account concerning the origin of education. There are 2 opposing school of thoughts when it comes to origin of education. 1. Evolutionist — education started form primitive people 2. Creationist- education started from Adam and Eve Modem day education owes much of it system to the institutions established by the ancient civilizations of China, India, Israel, Egypt, Greece and Rome 41 Chinese Education e Chinese are descendants from the rivers banks of Huang Ho and Yangtze River. e Aimed at selecting and training people for public services. e Emphasis on modeling a person’s character and moral values. ¢ Believed that government has responsibility to provide education ¢ Centered on the mastery of Chinese language and classical literature particularly the work of Confucius ( the first teacher in China). e Analects- the most revered Chinese classical literature which contains the sayings of Confucius. Egyptian Education e Egyptians were polytheist people (worshippers of many gods) e Pharaohs were considered their god and king e — Priest and scribes were teachers of noble class e Parents were teachers of lower class or fellahin e Education was highly practical and empirical e They devised a system of picture writing called hieroglyphics. e Provide the modern world with the basic foundation of education, art, music, literature, mathematics, engineering, architecture, astronomy, geography, geology, medicine etc. Greek Education e Ancient Greece was divided into several Poleis (small city-states) e Greeks were mixture of Germanic and Aryan stock ( strong race) e Sparta and Athens were two or more popular poleis ¢ Constant struggle between Sparta and Athens resulted in Peloponnesian War which lasted for 27 years. Spartan Education e Sparta was the largest polis e Purely military city-state © Mothers functioned as state nurses e At age 7 boys were turned over to Paidonomus- a military commander who cared for boys until age 18 ¢ Boys stayed with the paidonomoud until e At 18 boys prepare for the military training e At 20 get assigned for actual war e At 30 they are compelled to many ¢ — Girl’s education was limited to the instructions given by their mothers ¢ Because of their system, there was no famous Spartan 42 The first universities focused on teaching medicine University of Napes (the first organized university Composition of Medieval University PA PwWN EP Studium Generale ( entire studentry) Nation (students and teachers who came from same place of origin) Councilor (leader of Nation) Facultas (teachers who teaches the same subjects Dean (leader of Facultas) Rector (chosen by councilors and facultas) Degree Offered by Medieval University At 13 to 14, a boy may enter a university and study Liberal Arts At 21 teach younger boys At 25 write thesis If the students pass the thesis defense he will receive Licential Docebdi Remaissance Period (the peak of Arts and Sciences)- Renaissance is considered the start of modern period Reformation Period- Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses containing the abuses of the church to the door pos of his church. Counter Reformation= to win back protestants, the pope assigned 3 congregations to head counter-reformation. Brothers of Christian School (founded by St. La Salle) Society of Jesus ( founded by St. Francis of Loyola) Jansenites ( founded by St. Cyrene) Notable Names in Education Socrates-“know thy self” Plato-wrote the “Republic” Aristotle-Father of Modern Sciences Ciero-Wrote the “Oratore” Quintillian-Wrote” Institution Oratoria” he was a famous Grammaticus Anselm-father of scholasticism Abelard- spearheaded Conceptualism St. Thomas Aquinas- “wrote” Summa Theolgiae” Erasmus- suggested that education be in accordance with the needs of society, he was a humanist who advocated the importance of studying the character of the child Ascham- wrote the “Schoolmaster” condemning brutal punishment in English schools during his time. John Amos Comenius- father of modern education, he wrote the first picture book”Orbis Senualium Pictus” Mulcaster-said that” Education should be in accordance with nature” 45 e John Locke-“tabula rasa’ ( blank sheet) e John Jacques Rosseau-wrote”Emile” (Education should be in accordance with the nature of the child) e Pestallozzi- defined education as natural ,symmetrical and harmonious development of the faculties of the child e — Herbart- conceived education as aimed towards the development of morality and virtue. He is famous for the Herbatian Method in psychology e Froebel-father of kindergarden e John Dewey- “Education is not preparation for life, it is life” e St.John Baptiste de la Salle- patron saint of teachers ¢ Maria Montessori-advocated the child- centered education and prepared environment ORIENTAL PHILOSOPHY CONFUCIANISM e Had its beginning in the teachings of Confucius but the following sages took the lead in building its formulation. Mencius and Hzun-Tzu. ¢ Confucius is the Latinized name for Kung-Fu-Tzu-Fu-Tzu. tze which means master, is a polite suffix added to the names of most of the philosophers during the Chou Dynasty. ¢ Confucius was the founder of the Ju School which was known in the west as the Confucian School. e The Ju or Confucian School emphasized matters concerning human-heartedness and righteousness and the six liberal arts commonly translated as Liu Yi or the Six Classics namely: = Yi Ching or the Book of Changes = Shi-Ching or the Book of Odes = Shu-Ching or the Book of History = Li-chi or the Rituals and Rites = Chu’unCh’iu or the Book of Spring and Autumn Annals e The primary goal of Confucius was not just to make his” disciples” to ne well versed of the Classics but to be”rounded men”, useful to the state and the society. Thus, he taught them various branches of knowledge (ancient cultural history, interpretations baed on his moral concepts) based on the different Classics. ¢ Confucius’ philosophy is HUMANISTIC. It occupies mainly with HUMAN RELATIONS and VIRTUE. This, his concept of the Yi (Righteousness) and Jen (human heartedness). ¢ Counfucianist’s great virtue were: benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, sincerity and harmony. ¢ Confucious’ Ideas = His Ethics is based upon the nature of man and society’ = For him MAN is essentially a social being; he is the main component of a society (made by the individuals who compose it and the interaction they have each other) = A MORAL man is the cooperating member of the society. = The measures of the man’s life is not ”>how long” but “how good”. 46 = All men desire happiness and in order to achieve it everyone’s goal must be to make each other happy. = The secret of his mark in history is based on the great emphasis on the Supremacy of HUMAN VALUES. WISDOM is to KNW men; VIRTUE is to LOVE men”. = A government is GOOD when it make its people happy = The government should bring about welfare and happiness of the whole people. = A good government must be administered by the most capable men of the country- those who have the CHARACTER and KNOWLEDGE. = Character and knowledge were produced by PROPER EDUCATION CONFUCIANISM: DOCTRONE OF JEN = Jen or benevolence is the central thesis of his whole system- his ethic, politics and his life ideal-flowed from this; this is the PERFECT and SUPREME VIRTUE. = The Jen stresses correct procedure fir human relations-proper way for men to meet each others leading to positive efforts for the good of others. = A man of Jen is man of all around virtue = Jean is the Confucian ideal of: Y Cultivating human relations v Developing human faculties v Sublimating one’s personality v Upholding human rights = To achieve Jen one must practice the Chung and the Shu (the Principle of Reciprocity). v Chung- means faithfulness; a state of the mind when one is completely honest with himself v Shu- means altruisn; it is regard for the others; a state of mind when one has complete understanding and sympathy with the outside world, the opposite of selfishness. CONFUCIANMISM DOCTRINCE OF YI = Literally, Yi means righteousness = The concept of Yi is the one that upholds man’s conduct = It is the highest principle embodied in the activities of mankind = CONFUCIANIS = Spirit of confucianis = Confucianism is not a Religion but a Philosophy and a system of Ethics. Confucianism emphasizes human relationships- how to live in harmony with others. Man’s personality reflects itself in his actions and behavior in the five relationships: a. Governmental (King and Subject) b. Parental (Father and Son) c. Conjugal ( Husband and Wife) d. Fraternal ( Elder Brother and Younger Brother) e. Friendship ( Friend and Friend) On Ethics 47 Philosophical Background Teachers are heirs to a rich philosophical heritage. Passed on to us are a number of philosophies of various thinkers who believed before us. These thinkers reflected on life in this planet. They occupied themselves by searching for answers to questions about human existence. Five Philosophies of Education Essentialism: Main proponent-William Bagley Progressivism: “Education is nor preparation for life” Main proponent-John Dewey Perennialism:Main proponent- Robert Hutchins Existentialism:Existence precede essence” Main proponent- Jean Paul Sarte Behaviorism: Main proponent-John Watson Introduction Man by nature is curious. He wants to know the “whatness, whyness, and howness” of the things around him. It is in the exploring of things that he finds fulfillment for the numerous complexities that confront him. The eagerness to look for more answers or find solution to manifolds problems that beset him leads him to the undending journey of seeking for truth. Truly , this manifests the true desire of man which is to know. It affirms not only his essence, his rationality. It is also a fulfillment of his purpose to keep the truth and pass it from one generation to another so as to preserve humanity. Ideas flow from the human mind eternally. It is in the ideas that the truth lies. Undending as the ideas are, the more the need for a man to harness and cultivates it to perfection. Ideas that are not nourished and protected will not just prevent man in possessing the truth but it will also deprive him a taste of his rationality. Hence , ideas must and should be at all times shine in luster of naturalness, profound by simplicity and contain true and real meaning. The truth in the ideas must be preserved in as much as man wants to preserve the gift of knowledge and wisdom that it brings. And delicate as it is, it should be protected from all forms of deterioration and artificialities. Presented it maybe in various ways, the real meaning must be conveyed at all times. It is Philosophizing that the ideas can be best presented and conveyed. This can be best enhanced through proper education. Since then philosophy and education complement and work hand-in-hand in the acquisition of knowledge and the preservation of Truth. True enough, one can say then that Philosophy is knowledge and Education is the most essential tool of philosophy in the search for wisdom and truth. Man and Philosophy The ultimate aim of man is to possess for the Truth. The process ends not in the search but in the possession of the truth. It is in his capacity to think, to rationalize that the responsibility of 50 philosophizing is realized. It is but proper then to have a closer look on the man and a glimpse of what philosophy is, so that we can fully understand the meaning of our search for the truth and the desire to possess it. Definition of Man The quest for the truth is the ultimate goal of man. There is no way but up, the goal is to achieve it. Thus, man is defined vertically as Rational Animal. Innate in man is the desire to be with his fellow beings. It is in his relationship with others that fulfillment of another dimension of his rationality is achieved. Time and time, it has been proven that man cannot live by himself alone. The need to share himself with others-share his innermost thoughts, feelings, experiences and unravel the kind of person he is-is a must fully realize the aspect of being political animal. Hence , the aim to develop a relationship not only with him spreads to other beings. Here he develops friendship, camaraderie, companionship with other fellow beings. He grows and finds fulfillment with them. This, man is defined horizontally as a SOCIAL or POLITICAL ANIMAL. Being rational and social or political animal are not enough to realize the value of man. Another aspect must also be present, functionality. Man is created for a certain reason or purpose. He has a role to perform in order to preserve him and all other beings. He is the steward of the world. In this regard, man should work. Hence man is defines as a Working Animal. Relationship of Philosophy and Education While philosophy establishes the fundamental principles (concepts, theories, learning). It is Education that carries out these principle. Furthermore, it is Philosophy that provides the goal or aims while Education is the instrument in realizing these goals. Philosophy and Education complement each other. Both of them spouse theory and practice. The absence of one of the one will make a man insufficient and aimless. Philosophy of Education Naturalism Rooted from Ancient Philosopher such as Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes “ Denies everything that has supernatural significance-dogmas/revelations-for all can only be found through nature “Preserves the natural goodness of man = Truth can only be found nature Advocates: J.J. Russeau, John Lock, Montaigne “On Education v Naturalism stands for democratic and universal way-everyone must be educated in the same manner. v Education is in accordance to human development and growth 51 v Emphasis is given more on the physical development- informal exercise-and hygiene of the person rather of the 3R’s v Aims to unfold the child’s potential not to prepare him for a definite vocation or social position-but to prepare him to adapt to the changing times and needs. Consequently, ones conduct is governed by impulse, instinct and experience. v It puts the child at the center of educational process and prepares him to experience life as it is. Idealism Ideas are the only true reality, the ultimate truths for matter is nothing but just a mere representation of ideas. Emphasis is given on knowledge obtained by speculation and reasoning for its central tenet is that ideas are the only thing worth knowing for. Focus is on conscious reasoning of the mind in order to attain truth. This includes the activities pertinent to the human mind such as introspection and intuition and the use of logic. Advocates: Socrates, Plato On Education. v Its aim is to discover the full potentials in child and cultivates it in order to prepare him for a better position in the society and for him to serve the society better. v Emphasis is given on subjects-philosophy, literature, religion and history that will develop and enhance the mind of a child v Methods used in teaching include lecture, discussion and the Socratic dialogue. v Character development is through emulation of examples and heroes. Realism Concerms with the actualities of life, what is real. Ultimate reality is the world of physical objects. Hence, reality is independent of the human mind. - Objective existence of the world and beings in it - Knowability of these objects as they are in themselves Advocates: Aristotle, St. Thomas and Jonathan Herbart On Education: - The most effective way to find about reality is to study it through organized, separate and systematically arranged matter- emphasis is on subject matter concerning Science and Mathematics - Methods used in teaching include recitation, experimentation and demonstration - Character development is through training in the rules of conduct Existentialism * * Rooted from the dehumanization of man by technology and reaction to the traditional Philosophy of Kant and Hegel Defining feature is “ existence precede essence” 52 - Education is a process and should not be taken abruptly. The unfolding of human character proceeds with the unfolding f nature - The learner should be in control of his destiny - Concern is more on methods which include theme writing rather than of oral discussions, drills and exercises, playing. - Asserts the importance of playing in the curriculum - Emphasizes motivations and the use of praise and rewards - Curriculum includes subjects concerning literary appreciation, physical education, social training in manners and development Progressivism Contrasted the traditional view of essentialism and perinnialism Emphasizes change and growth Stresses that man is a social animal who learns well through active interplay with others Learning is based from the questions of one’s experience of the world. Hence, it is the learner himself if who thinks, solves and gives meaning through his individual experience. Proponent: John Dewey On Education: - Focuses on the child as a whole rather than of the content or the teacher - Curriculum content comes from the questions and interests of the students - Emphasis is given on the validation of ideas by students through active experimentation - Methods of teaching include discussions, interaction (teacher with students) and group dynamics - Opposes the extreme reliance on bookish method of instruction, learning through memorization, the use of fear and punishment and the four (4) walled philosophy of education Nationalism Rapid rise was in the 18" century Center of ideology is the concept of national sovereignty Aims for the preservation and glorification of the State Emphasis is on the development of loyalty, patriotism, national feeling and responsible citizenship Advocates: Jonathan Herbart, Johan Heinrich Pestalozzi On Education: - The most important development was the creation of common language - Stresses on the teaching of the principles of democracy and duties of citizenship - Stimulates the development of the state which includes the control and support of public school system - Curriculum includes the teaching of grammar, geography and history - Method of teaching gives emphasis on the content regarding on nature studies, physical exercises and play activities. 55 Constructivism e A philosophy of learning which asserts that reality does exist outside of human conceptions. It is the individual that construct reality by reflecting on his own experience and gives meaning to it. e Leaming is the process of adjusting one’s mental modes to accommodate new experience Reconstructivism e A philosophy that aims to awaken the consciousness of individual about the social issues, concems and problems that comfort him. This should involve him to look for solutions and engage in addressing this social concerns and issues e Primary goal is to achieve the elusive Social Change. e Advocates: Theodore Brameld, George Counts, Paulo Friere ¢ On Education: - Schools should originate policies and progress that will bring social reforms and others - Teachers should be an instrument to encourage and lead students in program of social reforms - Curriculum emphasis on social reforms as the aim of education. It focuses on student experience and taking social actions on real problems. - Method of teachings include the problem oriented type ( students are encouraged to critically examine cultural heritage), group discussions, inquiry, dialogues, interactions and community-based learning. - The classroom will serve as a laboratory in experimenting school practices bringing the world into the classroom. Behaviorism ¢ Rooted in the work of Russian experimental psychologist Ivan Pavlov and American psychologist John Watson in the early 1990’s e Asserts that human beings are shaped entirely by their external environment e The only reality is the physical world e¢ Man by nature is neither good nor bad but a product of his environment. Hence, an autonomous acting man is but an illusion since it negates the faculty of freewill ¢ Advocates: John Watson, B.F. Skinner Other’s ISM’s Utilitarianism - Actions are geared toward the greatest total amount of happiness that one can achieved 56 Rationalism - Source of knowledge is the mind, independent of the senses Empriricism - Source of knowledge is the sense-based experience Experimentalism - Form empiricism and asserts that they only reliable form of knowledge is gained through scientific experiments Hedonism - Pleasure is the only good thing to the person - Used as a justification in evaluating action by giving emphasis on ’how much’ pleasure can be achieved and how little pain that the action entails Epicurianism - Considers as a form of ancient hedonism, it identifies pleasure with tranquility and reduction of desire - Epicurus claimed that the highest pleasure consists of a simple and moderate life. Moral Principles of Teachers Morality refers to the quality of human acts by which we call them right or wrong, good or evil “Do good and avoid evil” ( Fundamental Moral Principle) “Do not do unto others what you do not like others do to you” (Kung-fu.tzu) Act in such a way that your rule can be the principle of all ( Immanuel Kant) Eight Fold Path (Buddists) Koran and Five Pillars ( Muslims) Ten commandments and Beautitudes ( Christian) VV Vv VV Vv As teachers, we are expected to be a person of good moral character as exempliefied by being human, loving, virtues; and mature. Teachers values Formation Values are taught and caught. Values have cognitive, affective and behavioral dimensions 57 The teacher as a person cannot be detached from a teacher as a professional. Other than the skills of an effective teacher, the teacher as an individual person must possesses certain psychologically/personal characteristics, such as: A. Personality Characteristics a.1 achievement/Intelligence a.2 directness a.3 flexibility a.4 emotional stability a.5 self- motivation and drive a.6 dominance and self confidence a.7attractiveness and pleasantness a.8 refinement B. Attitude b.1 Motivation to teach b.2 empathy toward learners b.3 commitment b.4 objectiveness b.5 buoyancy b.6 resourcefulness b.7 cooperativeness b.8 reliability and dependability C. Experience c.lyears of teaching c.2 experience in subjects taught c.3 experience with particular grade/year level D. Aptitude/achievement d.1 scores in ability test d.2 college grade/point average d.4 student teaching evaluations TEACHING COMPETENCIES NATIONAL COMPETENCY-BASED TEACHER STANDARDS (NCBTS) “A unified framework for teacher development An integrated theoretical framework that defines the different dimensions of effective teaching “Effective teaching means being able to help all types of students learn the different learning goals in the curriculum. “It is based on the core values of Filipino teachers and on effective teaching and learning “It is based on the seven domains, which one representing the desired features of the teaching and learning process. THE TEACHER, SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS 60 OVERVIEW: Schools and community are linked together to provide support to parents who are charged with the primordial responsibility to educate their children. Schools will not succeed without the participation of parents. (NCBTD-Based In-Service Teacher Training Modules. The members of the community, in addition to the parents and the school, include the local government units, the non-government agencies civic organizations and all the residents PARENTAL INVLOVEMENT The influence of parental involvement on a student’s academic success should not be underestimated. While brain power, work ethic,and even genetics all play important roles in student achievement, the determining factor comes down to what kind of support system she has at home. School and Community Relations The school and the community are the mainsprings of effective and powerful forces that can creat a wholesome climate for mutual gains and betterment “% PTCA “ Public safety, beautification and cleanliness Instructional centers in the community Linkages and Networking with Organizations The school can enjoy linkages and networking activities with international, national and local organizations in the community for mutual benefits and assistance needed International (Pi Lamda Theta, Innotech, World Council for Curriculum Instruction) “National and local ( cross enrollment, joint researches) Net working (consortia, BIOTA, MATHED, MTAP, SUCTEA, NOPTI, FAAP, PACU-COA, PAASCU, AACUP NOTED etc) CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT Organizational Plan Structured Classroom: The learning activities in a structured classroom are well-planned ahead of time, and the procedures follow accepted rules and regulations established by the school. Flexible Classroom: In a flexible classroom, there is allowance for free movement, time allotment and even in decisions regarding modes of undertaking the learning activities. -Individualized approach -Grouping Scheduling Good time management is the key to a smooth flow of planned activities Teachers must be able to plan thoroughly for their daily lessons and for additional activities such as: “Parent teacher conference after class Working with other teachers during occasional school events “Preparing new teaching devices “Advanced request for supplies and materials for the week’s lessons and for learning centers “Supervising students along the corridors and school grounds or while eating in the canteen Filler or Emergency Activities 61 If you will be able to finish the lesson ahead of time, be ready with “fillers” or activities which are connected with the lesson Tips for maintaining good time management Schedule all activities with corresponding time allotment ahead of time Provide enough time for everything you expected to happen Avoid rushing since you know have carefully allotted required time foe every activity Be flexible with assignment 5. Set the example by showing that you are time-conscious Record keeping Daily attendance Students Progress Physical Environment Maintaining cleanliness “Using proper ventilation Avoiding unnecessary noise Bulletin boards and displays Seating arrangements Discipline Causes of discipline problems “ Overcrowded students in class Poor lighting facilities “Inadequate ventilation Disorderly cabinets “Inappropriate seating arrangement “Near sources of noise Prevention Cooperative learning, team learning, peer tutoring Switch form one technique to another as needed arises “Patience, compassion, caring attitude, respect for others Warm, respectable relationship with students Unpretentious gestures “Proper facial expression “Kind words or praises “Avoiding unusual closeness/favoritism and biased treatment Common ways of establishing discipline/classroom control 1. Discipline is students responsibility 2. Discipline is the teacher’s way of establishing a desirable student-oriented environment for learning 3. Discipline is coupled with effective teaching strategies and techniques 4. Discipline is achieved through the effects of group dynamics on behavior Tips to make the teacher a good disciplinarian 1. Be prepared to face a class with multi-behavior tendencies 2. Know your students well 3. Show your sincere concern for their welfare Commendable behavior is reciprocal Be calm, poised and tactful Be firm at all times Be enthusiastic Practice good sense of humor Speak with good voice, volume and pitch WN % % BS Ponaym 62 Global Teachers Millennium Awards 21* CENTURY LEARNING GOALS In order to address the challenges of the paradigm shift in the educational sector, the 21* Century Learning Goals have been set as bases of various curricular worldwide 1. 21* Century Content Among the emerging content areas are global awareness on finance, economy, business, entrepreneurial literacy, civic literacy and health awareness Learning and thinking skills These are critical thinking and problem-solving skills, about communication, creativity, and innovation, collaboration , contextual learning, information and media literacy. ICT Literacy This entails the use of technology in the context of learning, so that students know how to learn. Life Skills These include leaderships, ethics, accountability, personal responsibility, and self direction 21* Century Assessment These are authentic assessment procedures to measure learning outcomes 21* CENTURY DIGITAL FLUENCY For developing basic digital skills, there is a need for new literacies to replace the 3 Rs. 1. 2. Solution Fluency Capacity to define, design, and apply solution and also assess the process and the result Information Fluency The ability to access and retrieve digital information (text, sounds, or video) while and accuracy students are aware of context Collaboration Fluency Teamwork with peers through an exciting experience of partnership in learning Media Fluency Capacity to analytical evaluation of messages from sources like the internet and other media such as news papers, magazines, televisions, etc. Creativity Fluency Proficiency in art design, story-telling, or packaging messages with the use of artistic elements such as font, color, lay —out, etc. Digital ethics This refers to the responsibility and accountability of using the digital world, such as citing sources. TEACHER AS A PROFESSIONAL Professionalization of teaching: A Historical Perspective History of Philippine Educational System 1987 Constitution “ The State shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels and shall take opportunities steps to make such education accessible to all. “The State shall enhance the right of teachers to professional advancement 65 The State shall establish, maintain and support complete adequate and integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the people RA 7722 (Higher Education Act of 1994) “The State shall ensure and protect academic freedom * CHED is tasked by the state to identify ‘ centers of excellence” in program areas needed for the development of world class scholarship, nation building and development. RA 9155 ( Government of Basic Education Act of 2001) “An act instituting a framework of governance for basic education, establishing authority and accountability, renaming the Department of Education Culture and Sports as the Department of Education RA 7796 TESDA Act of 1994 EO 356 ( Renaming the Bureau of Non Formal Education to Bureau of Alternative Learning System) Learning System) “One of the functions of the Bureau of Alternative Learning System is to address the learning needs of the marginalized group of the population including the deprived, depressed and underserved citizen Batas Pambasa 232 ( Education Act of 1982) Students have the right receive primarily through competent instruction, relevant quality education in line with national goals and conductive to their full development as person with the human dignity “Teachers shall be deemed persons in authority when in the discharge of lawful duties and responsibilities and shall therefore be accorded with due respect and protection. The UNESCO ( United Nations Scientific and Cultural Organization) “ ~Leaming to know “ ~Leaming to do “ Leaming to live together “ ~Leaming to be EFA (Education For All 2015) “ Institutionalize early childhood care and development “Provide universal quality primary education Eradicate illiteracy Launch continuing education programs for adults and out-of-school youth UN Millennium Development Goals 2015 (MGDs) “Reducing by half the number of people, who live in extreme poverty “Reducing death in mothers and children below five Making primary education accessible to all “ Reducing gender disparities “Providing access to reproductive health services “Pursuing national strategies for sustainable development Reserving environment resources losses “Developing a global partnership for development Child Friendly School System (CFSS) “Initiated by the Philippine Government and UNICEF “Characteristics of CFSS - Gender sensitive and not discriminating 66 - Child centered - Promotes good health - Has the best interest of children in mind Works closely with children’s families Magna ¢ Carta for Public School Teachers (RA 4680) “+ Stability of employment “Teachers shall enjoy academic freedom, particularly with regard to teaching and classroom, methods. “Teachers salary at the very least will keep pace with the rise in the cost of living by payment of cost of living index “* Compulsory medical examination foe free Presidential Decree 1006 ( Decree Professionalizing Teaching) “+ Enacted during the time of President Marcos “ Teachers will undergo professional test jointly given by Civil Service Commission and Department of Education and Culture “ RA7836 ( Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994) “ RA 9293 ( An Act Amending some sections of and Development Progtam (RA7836) * Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT GUIDE FOR TEACHERS TEACHER EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM (TEDP) DepEd has implemented the Teacher Education Development program (TEDM) that seeks to conceptualize the continuing career path of a teacher, starting upon entry until retirement. The TEDM is anchored from a set of competencies embodied in the National Competency Based- Teacher Standards (NCBTS). Retirement Preparation DepED Entry to 1 | Teacher Educai DepEd/CHED/TEI: A NanoreMeneennd oes Based Teacher Standards a; DepEd/Civil Service DepEd PRC Teacher Induction Teacher Human Resource CT icensure Training TEDP COMPETENCY-BASED PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL SYSTEM FOR TEACHERS (CB-PAST) Drawing from the Vision and Mission of the Department of Education, CB-PAST is a comprehensice appraisal system which addresses one of the mandates of the Department as embodied in the RA9155 (CB-PAST Primer , 2009). There a pressing call for teacher’s accountability that has never been as serious before. In response to relevant and quality education for the 21 Century, the Filipino teachers 67 What is a Learning Objective? A learning objective is a statement of what students will be able to do when they have completed instruction. A learning objective has three major components: 1. A description of what the student will be able to do; 2. The conditions under which the student will perform the task; and 3. The criteria for evaluating student performance What is the difference between a goal and a Learning Objective? A Goal is a statement of the intended general outcome of an instructional unit or program. A goal statement describes a more global learning outcome. A learning objective is a statement of one of several specific performances, the achievement of which contributes to the attainment of the goal. A. single GOAL may have specific subordinate learning objectives. For example GOAL: The goal of Learning Assessment course is to enable the students to make reliable and accurate assessment of learning. Learning Objectice#1: Given a learning objective of the student will be able to develop an appropriate multiple-choice question to measure student achievement of the objective. Learning Objective#2: Given a printout from an item analysis of multiple choice exam the student will be able to state the accuracy of the test scores Learning Objective#3: Given the discrimination and difficulty indices of an item the student will be able to determine if the item contributes to the reliability of the exam. Why Are Learning Objectives Important? 1. Selection of the content 2. Development of an instructional strategy 3. Development and selection of instructional materials 4. Construction of tests and other instruments for assessing and then evaluating student learning outcomes How Do You Write A Learning Objective? Focus on student performance, not teacher performance Focus on product, not process Focus on terminal behavior, not subject matter Include only general learning outcome in each objective. A learning objective is a statement describing a competency of performance capability to be acquired by the learner. There are three characteristics essential t0o insuring clear statements of objectives. Bwnyr Behavior- First, an objective must describe the competency to be learned in performance terms. The choice of a verb is all-important here. Such frequently used terms as know, understand, grasp, and appreciate do not meet his requirement. If the verb used in stating an objective identifies an observable student behavior, then the basis for a clear statement is established. In addition, the type or level of learning must be identified. Criterion- Second, an objective should make clear how well a learner must perform to be judge adequate. This can be done with a statement indicating a degree of accuracy, a quantity or proportion of correct responses or the like. Conditions- Third, an objective should describe the conditions under which the learner will be expected tperform in the evaluation situation. The tools , references, or other aids thus will be provided or denied should be made clear. Sometimes , one or even two of these elements will be easily implied by a simple statement. In other times, however, it may be necessary to 70 clearly specify in detail each element of the objective. The following is an example of a completed learning objective. OBJECTIVE: “Given a set of data the student will be able to compute the standard deviation”. Condition- Given an set of data Behavior- the student will be able to compute the standard deviation Criterion — ( implied)- the number computed will be correct Checklist for Writing a Specific Instructional Objective 1. Begin each statement of a specific learning outcome with a verb that specifies definite , observable behavior. 2. Make sure that each statement meets all three of the criteria for a good learning objective? 3. Be sure to include complex objectives ( appreciation, problem-solving, etc) when they are appropriate Guides or aids to writing learning objectives: Educators and psychologist concemed with learning theory have given considerable through the various types of learning that takes place in schools. Probably the most comprehensive and widely known analysis of objectives in the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives by Benjamin Bloom and others. Taxonomy provides a consistent means of developing the single most powerful tool in instruction and assessment of students learning outcomes-the learning performance objective. The Taxonomy distinguishes among three major categories of objectives termed the COGNITIVE DOMAIN, the PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN, and the AFFECTIVE DOMAIN. It is generally the Cognitive Learning Domain that is of primary concern in higher education. If we assume that faculty is more concerned with process and problem-solving activities, the categories of Taxonomy are most valuable in suggesting various kinds of behavior to use as objectives. The following list of process-oriented behaviors, which are related to the six categories of the Taxonomy, should serve as a useful guide to the faculty in preparing objectives. TABLES OF PROCESS ORIENTED LEARNER BEHAVIORS 71 KNOWLEDGE Recall, identity, recognize, acquire, distinguish COMPREHENSION Translate, extrapolate, convert, interpret, abstract transform APPLICATION Apply, sequence, carry out, solve, prepare, operate, generalize, plan, repair, explain ANALYSIS Analyze, estimate, compare, observe, detect, classify, discover, discriminate, identify, explore, distinguish, catalog, determine, outside SYNTHESIS Write, plan, integrate, formulate, propose, specify, produce, organize, theorize, design, build, systematize EVALUATION Evaluate, verify, assess, test, judge, rank, measure, appraise, select, check Domains of Learning Learning is a psychological process. Thus, the assessment of learning, of necessity, requires the assessment of various psychological processes. In developing assessment tools (tests), it is important that we first have an understanding of these psychological processes and how to go about measuring them. Although there are many psychological models for the process of learning, for this workbook we have chosen the taxonomy of Behavioral objectives as useful tool. In Bloom’s taxonomy, there are three fundamental learning domains: Cognitive, Psychomotor, and A ffective. 72 effort fades as the performance becomes more or less habitual. Timing and coordination are emphasized. Here, the person has acquired the skill but is not as expert 4. Adapting Fine tuning. Making minor | Perfection of the skill, Minor adjustments in the physical | adjustments are made __ that activity in order to perfect it. influence the total performance. Coaching often very valuable here . This is now a good player becomes a better player The psychomotor domain refers to the use of basic motor skills, coordination, and physical movement. Bloom’ s search group did not develop in-depth categories of this domain, claiming lack of experience in teaching these skills. However, Simpson (1972) developed seven psychomotor categories to support the original domain. These physical behaviors are learned through repetitive practice. A learner’s ability to perform these skills is based on precision, speed, distance and technique. Direct Instruction/ Lecture Advantages “ Teacher-controlled Many objectives can be mastered in s short amount of time “Lends to valid evaluations Disadvantages “— Teacher-controlled “Student involvement is limited to the teacher “Depends in part to rote learning ( repetition form memory, often without meaning) When to use? When the objectives indicate effectiveness “When the teacher determines that it is the best to use of time & effort Six steps in Direct Instruction 1. Review previously learned material e A short review before/ with the new lesson’s interest approach eCheck & grade previous homework e Put problems on the board ( can be part of bell-work) e Re-teach if necessary 2. State objectives for the lesson ¢ — Students should know what is to be taught 75 -Stated clearly -Written on the board -Handed out ¢ Follow the objective ¢ Use them to develop evaluations 3. Present new material e Your teaching depends on your analysis and preparation ¢ Organize content e From general to specific e From lower level objectives to higher e From previous information to new material Lectures ¢ Be aware of attention spans ¢ Be aware of the number of major points made e Be repetitious e Review and summarize ¢ Demonstrations -Learning Activity, experiment, demonstration -WOW em! -Allow students to practice immediately 4. Guided practice with corrective feedback ¢ Guided and independent practice e Teacher controls & monitors guided e Teacher evaluates & corrects independent © Questions should be prepared in advance 5.Assign independent practice with corrective feedback ¢ Homework e A formative step, not a summative step © Worksheets 6.Review periodically with corrective feedback if necessary Check homework promptly “Base new instruction on results “ Re-teach if necessary Other Teaching Techniques Brainstorming Situations for use: “Generate ideas ( quantity is more important that quality) 76 * Students have some level of experience Planning Required: * * Formulate the question Plan for recording ideas Brainstorming Steps Pose question to class Generate ides with group Accept all ideas ( do not criticize) Go back to summarize discard “ unacceptable” or unworkable ideas Determine the best solutions Supervised Study Common technique used in problem solving instruction, but certainly not the only technique appropriate for problem solving instruction Also a major technique used in competency-based education programs. Often misused technique. A really bad form of this technique is: read the chapter’s the textbook and answer the questions at the end of the chapter. Classified as an individualized instruction technique Situations Appropriate for Use Discovery or inquiry learning is desired Access to good reference materials ( textbooks, extension publications, web resources, industry publications, etc.) Students may need to” look up” information Alternate answers may be acceptable Many structured lab activities are actually a form of supervise study Strengths: Provides skills in learning that are useful throughout student’s lives. For they need to know how to locate and analyze information Recall is enhanced when students have to “look up” information, rather than being lectured to. Students have to decide what information is important and related to the question posed Opportunity for the students to develop writing and analytical skills. Weakness: Easy for students to get off-task Students may interpret questions differently and locate incorrect information ( practicing error) Unmotivated students will do the absolute minimum Students tend to copy information from sources rather analyze and synthesize information Requires more time than lecture 77 Planning Needed: Objectives “Trial run/visit “Special considerations (safety, grouping, etc.) Summarize ( don’t give up responsibility!). it is critical to know what the students have learned from the activity. Provide advance organizers (e.g. report forms, fact sheets) “plant” questions among students “Assign students to begin the questions With-it-ness- the teacher knows that what is going on in the classroom at all times. Seemingly, the teacher has eyes in the back of his/her head. This is not only when the teacher is in a small group setting, but when he/she is presenting a topic or students are working as individuals. It can be as simples as looking around the room frequently or making sure your back is never turned to the class. It is not necessary to know what the teacher know is going on- it is what the students believe she knows. Other Helpful Tip on Student Control The Hawthorne Effect is a phenomenon in industrial psychology first observed in the 1920s. It refers to improvements in productivity or quality resulting from the mere fact that workers were being studied or observed. Pygmalion Effect (or Rosenthal effect) refers to situations in which students performed better that other students simply because they were expected to do so. Placebo Effect is the phenomenon that a patient’s symptoms can be alleviated by an otherwise ineffective treatment, apparently because the individual expects or believes that it will work The John Henry Effect has also been identified: an experiment may spur competition between groups, precisely because they are conscious of being part of an experiment. The term “halo effect” describe what happens when a scientific observation is influenced by the observer’s perceptions of the individual procedure, or service that is under observation. The observers prejudices, recollections of previous observations, and knowledge about prior observations or finding can all affect objectivity and must be guarded against. Jacob Kounin’s Theory all of this came about form an incident that happened while he was teaching a class in Mental Hygiene. A student in the back of the class was reading newspaper, and the newspaper being opened fully in front of the student so that he couldn’t see the teacher. Kounin asked the student to put the paper away and pay attention. Once the student complied, Kounin realized that other students who were engaging in non appropriate behaviors (whispering, passing notes) stopped and began to pay attention the lecture. This gave him interest in understanding classroom discipline on not 80 only the student being disciplined, but also the other students in the classroom. This is the effect that became known as the “Ripple Effect”. Effective Instructional Technique The Art of Questioning Teacher ask questions over a hundred questions in a class session to encourage student thinking. Let’s examine some aspects of the Art of questioning, including: types of questions wait time,and questioning and creativity Categories of Questions There are many systems that teachers use to classify questions. Upon close observation, in the most systems, questions are typically classified into two categories. Various terms are used to describe these two categories ( Figure 1). The binary approach is useful because two categories are more manageable foe a beginning teacher to learn to implement the typical approach of using systems with six categories Figure 1 categories of Questions Category 1 Category 2 Factual Higher cognitive Closed Open Convergent Divergent Lower level Higher level Low order High over Low inquiry High inquiry Low inquiry questions. These questions focus on previously learned knowledge in order to answer questions posed by the teacher, who requires the students to perform ONE of the following taks: Elicit the meaning of a term Represent something by a word or a phrase Supply an example of something Make statements of issues, steps in a procedure, rules, conclusions, ideas and beliefs that have BwWNE previously been made 5. Supply a summary or a review of what was previously said or provided 6. Provide a specific, predictable answer to a question High inquiry questions. These questions focus on previously learned knowledge in order to answer questions posed by the teacher, who requires the students to perform ONE of the following tasks: 1. Perform an abstract operation, usually of a mathematical nature, such as multiplying, substituting, or simplifying 2. Rate some entity as to its value, dependability, importance, or sufficiency with a defense of the rating 81 3. Find similarities or differences in the qualities of two or more entities utilizing criteria defined by the student 4. Make a prediction that is the result of some stated condition, state, operation, object or substance 5. Make inferences to account for the occurrence of something (how or why it occurred). Low inquiry questions tend to reinforce “correct” answers, or focus on specific acceptable answers, whereas high inquiry questions stimulate a broader range or responses, and tend to stimulate high levels of thinking. There is evidence to support the use of both types of question Low inquiry questions will help sharpen students ability to recall experiences and events of science teaching. Low inquiry questions are useful if you are interests in having students focus on the details of the content of a chapter in their textbook, or laboratory experiment. High inquiry questions encourage range of responses from the students and tend to stimulate divergent thinking. Figure 2 summarizes the differences between low and high inquiry questions. Figure 2. Difference Between Low and High Inquiry Questions -Give an opinion or state an attitude Type Student responses Response Examples -Recall, memorize How many.. Define... -Describe in own words In your own words.. closed state similarities and -Summarize differences.. Low inquiry What is the evidence..? (convergent) -Classify on basis of What is an example.. ? known criteria -Give an example of something -Create unique or Design an experiment.. original design, report, inference, prediction Open What do you predict...? -Judge scientific High inquiry | credibility What do you think (divergent) about...? Design a plan that would solve? What evidence can you cite to support..? Wait Time. Knowledge of the types of questions, and their predicted effect on student thinking is important to know. However, researchers have found that there are other factors associated with 82 Role of Education- Knowledge leads to growth and development of lifelong learners who actively learn by doing. Focus in the curriculum-Subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative, and interactive. Curriculum is focused on students interest, human problems and affairs. Curriculum Trends- School reforms, relevant and contextualized curriculum, and humanistic education RECONSTRUCTIVISM Aim of Education- To improve and reconstruct society, since education is for change Role of Education- Teachers act as agents of change and reform in various educational projects, including research. Focus in the Curriculum- Present and Future trends and issues of national and international interest. Curriculum Trends- Equality of educational opportunities in education, and access to global education. Historical Foundations of Curriculum Philippine educations was greatly influence by the American educational system. The following curriculum theories laid down their views on what curriculum is. 1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956_ presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes the student’s needs. Curriculum prepares students for adult life. To Bobbit, objectives with corresponding activities should be grouped and sequenced. This can only be done of instructional activities and tasks are clarified. Werett Characters (1875-1952)- Like Bobbit, to Charters, curriculum is a science, it gives emphasis on students needs. The listing objectives and matching of these with corresponding activities ensure that the content or subject matter is related to the objective. The subject matter and the objectives are planned by the teacher. William Kilpatrict (1871-1965)- Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-centered. The purpose of the curriculum is child development. The project method was introduced by Kilpatrick, whose model allowed the teacher and student to plan the activities. The curriculum develops social relationships and small group instruction. Harold Rugg (1886-1960)- Rugg, the curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child- centered. With the statement of objectives and related learning activities, curriculum should produce outcomes. Rugg emphasized social studies, and that teachers plan the curriculum in advance Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)- He saw curriculum as organized around social functions or themes, organized knowledge and learner’s interest. Caswell believes that curriculum is a set of experiences Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)- as one of the authorities on curriculum, Tyler believes that curriculum is a science and an extension of the school’s philosophy. It is based on student’s needs and interest. To Tyler , curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values. The Process emphasizes problem-solving. The curriculum aims to educate generalists and not specialists 85 Historical development shows different changes in the purposes, principles and content of the curriculum. The different changes are influenced by educational philosophy, psychology and pedagogical theories. This implies that curriculum is ever-changing, putting in knowledge and content from many disciplines Psychological foundations of Education Psychology provides a basis for the teaching and learning process. It unifies elements of the learning process and some of the questions which can be addressed by psychological foundations of education. How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? What is the optimum level of the students’ preparation in learning various contents of the curriculum? Three groups of learning theories like behaviorism or association theories; cognitive-information processing theories are considered to address the4 above questions. 1. BEHAVIORIST PSYCHOLOGY Behaviorism dominated 20"-century psychology. It includes, among others, the following: Connectionism-Edward Thorndike, which influence both Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba who considered to be two of the well-know curricularists. “Classical conditioning-Ivan Pavlov Operant Conditioning-B.F. Skinner Modeling and Observation Theory- Albert Bandura “Hierarchical Learning/sets of behavior and five learning outcomes- Robert Gagne 1. Intellectual skills or’? knowing how” categorize and use symbols, forming concepts and problem-solving. Information or’ knowing what” knowledge about facts dates and names Cognitive strategies or learning skills Motor skills: and Attitudes, feelings and emotions learned through experiences sR WN The listed learning outcomes overlap with the domains in the taxonomy of educational objectives, which are cognitive, affective and psychomotor. To the behaviorist, learning should be organized to students can experience success in the process of mastering the subject matter. The method introduced in a step by step manner with proper sequencing of tasks, which is viewed by other educational psychologist as simplistic and mechanical. 2. COGNITVE PSYCHOLOGY How do learns store information? How do they retrieve and generate conclusions? These are some of the basic questions asked by cognitive psychologists. Advocates of cognitive psychology: “ Cognitive Development Stages- jean Piaget 86 Social Constructivism- Lev Vygostky “ Multiple intelligences- Howard Garner “ Leaming Styles- Felder and Silverman “Emotional Intelligence- Daniel Goleman To the Cognitive theorist, learning constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning. Learning is rooted in the tradition of subject matter and is similar to the cognitive development theory. Teachers use a lot of problem-solving and thinking skills in teaching and learning, intuitive thinking, discovery learning. These are exemplified by practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking, discovery learning and many others. 3. HUMANISTICS PSYCHOLOGY Humanist psychologists are concerned with how learners can develop their human potentials. Traditional psychologists do not recognize humanistic psychology as a school of psychology, . however, observes view humanistic psychology as the third force learning theory after behaviorism and cognitive development. “ Leamning can be explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem and where the environment is changing and the learner is continuously recognizing his or her perceptions-Gestalt Theory. “ Theory of human needs for self- actualizing persons- Abraham Maslow =Non-directive lives= Carl Rogers Among the humanistic psychologists, curriculum is concerned with the process, not the products; personal needs, not subject matter, psychological meanings and environmental situations. In summary, psychology has a great influence on the curriculum. Learners not machines, and mind is not a computer. Humans are biological beings affected by their biology and cultures. The psychological foundations will curriculum makers in nurturing a more advanced, more comprehensive and complete human learning. 4. SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION Schools exist within social context. Societal culture affects and shapes schools and their curricula. The way school buildings are structured and they way classrooms and students are organized reflect the cultural views and values of the society. In considering the social foundations of the curriculum, we must recognize that schools are only one of the many institutions that educate society. However, schools are formal institutions that address more complex and interrelated societies and the world. Society ever dynamic, is a source of very fast changes which are difficult to cope with and to adjust to. Thus, schools are made to help understand these changes. However, some observations point out to the fact that schools are conservative institutions that lag behind they are supposed to be agents of change. Thus order for schools to be relevant, school curricula should address diversity, explosion of knowledge, school reforms and education for all. 87 Elements /Components of the Curriculum Aims, goals and objectives ( What is to be done?) Subject matter/Content (What subject matter is to be included?) Learning Experiences (What instructional strategies, resources and activities will be employed?) Evaluation Approaches (What methods and instruments will be used to asses the results of the curriculum?) Component 1- Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives The Philippine Educational system is divided into three educational levels namely the primary, secondary, and tertiary (with the trifocalization the educational system was divided into Basic Education (primary and secondary); Technical-Vocational Education (Post-secondary education) and Higher Education ( tertiary education) Based on the 1987 Philippine Constitution, all schools shall aim to: PON an Ppwnr Inculcate patriotism and nationalism Foster love of humanity Promote respect for human rights Appreciate the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country. Teach the rights and duties of citinzenship; Strengthen ethical and spiritual values Develop moral character and personal discipline Encourage critical and creative thinking; and Broaden scientific and technological knowledge and promote vocational efficiency Aims of Elementary Education ( Education Act of 1982) Through their curricula, elementary education should aim to: 1. Provide knowledge and develop skills, attitudes, values essential to personal development and necessary for living in and contributing to a developing and changing society; Provide learning experiences which increase the child’s awareness of and responsiveness to the changes in the society; Promote and intensify knowledge, identification with and love for the nation and the people to which he belongs; and Promote work experiences which develop orientation to the world of work and prepare the learner to engage in honest and gainful work. Aims of Secondary Education 1. Continue to promote the objectives of elementary education; and 90 2. Discover and enhance the different aptitudes and interests of students in order to equip them with skills for productive endeavor and or to prepare them for tertiary schooling Aims of Tertiary Education 1. Provide general education programs which will promote national identity, cultural consciousness, moral integrity and spiritual vigor 2. Train the nation’s manpower in the skills required for national development Develop the professions that will provide leadership for the nation; and 4. Advance knowledge through research and apply new knowledge for improving the quality of human life and respond effectively to changing society. yw Based on the mandate of the Constitution, each school therefore should be guided by its vision, mission and goals and its curricula should also revolved around these. The school’s vision is a clear concept of what the institution would like to become in the future. It provides the focal point and unifying element according to which the school staff, faculty and students perform individually or collectively. It is the guiding post around which all educational efforts, including curricula, should be directed. The school’s vision can be very ambitious, but that is a characteristic of a vision The school’s vision and mission are further translated into goals which are broad statements of intents to be accomplished. Data for the source of a school goals may include the learners, the society and the fund of knowledge. Ina curriculum, theses goals are made simple and specific for the attainment of each learner. These are called educational objectives, Benjamin Bloom and Robert Mager defined educational objectives in two ways: 1. Explicit formulation of the ways in which students are expected to be changed by the educational process, and 2. Intent communicated by statement describing a proposed change in learners. In other words, objectives direct the change in behavior, which is the ultimate aim of learning. They provide the bases for the selection of learning content and learning experiences. They also set the criteria against which learning outcomes will be evaluated. Three big domains of objectives ( Benjamin Bloom) (1) Cognitive; (2) affective; and (3) Psychomotor 1. Knowledge- recall, remembering of prior learned materials in terms of facts, concepts, theories and principles. It is the lowest cognitive level. 2. Comprehension-ability to grasp the meaning of material. It indicates the lowest form of understanding. 3. application-the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situation. 4. Analysis-ability to break down material into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. 5. Synthesis-ability to put parts together to form a new whole 91 6. Evaluation- Ability to pass judgment on something based on given criteria. Affective Domain( Krathwohl,1964)- domain of valuing, attitude and appreciation 1. Receiving- students willingness to pay attention to particular event, stimuli or classroom activities 2. Responding- active participation on the part of the students 3. Valuing-concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to a particular phenomenon, object or behavior 4. Organization-concerned with bringing together different values and building a value system 5. Characterization of value or value complex-developing a lifestyle based on a value system Psychomotor Domain (Simpson, 1972) Perception-use of sense organs to guide motor activities Set-refers to the readiness to take a particular type of action 3. Guided Response- concerned with early stages in learning complex skills imitation and trial and error are some of the ways of doing. 4. Mechanism-responses become habitual. Performance skills are executed with ease and confidence 5. Complex over responses-skillful performance and with complex movement patterns 6. Adaptation-well developed skills is now very easy to 7. Origination-refers to creating new movements and patterns to fit the situation, showing creativity. Components 2- Curriculum Content or Subject matter All curricula have content, regardless of their design or models. To the subject centered view, content or subject matter is another term for knowledge. It is compendium of facts, concepts generalization, principles and theories. To the learner-centered view, the content relates knowledge to the individuals personal and social world and how he/she defines reality. According to Jerome Bruner,” knowledge is a model we construct to give meaning and structure to regularities in experience” Criteria in the selection of subject matter content or knowledge for the curriculum (Bilbao, 2009) 1. Self-sufficiency- According to Scheffler (1970), the prime guiding principle for content selection is helping leamers to attain maximum self-sufficiency in learning, but in the most economical manner. Economy means less teaching effort and educational resources, less learner’s effort, but more results and effective learning outcomes. 2. Significance- when content or subject matter will contribute to basic ideas, concepts principles, and generalization to achieve the overall aim of the curriculum, the it is significant. It also significant if it will develop learning abilities, skills, processes and attitude. Subject matter is significant if it will develop the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills of the learners. It can also be significant if the cultural aspect will be considered. 92 Figure 1. Interrelationship of the components of a curriculum II.-CRAFTING/DEVELOPING THE CURRICULUM Points of View on Curriculum Development Development connotes changes which are systematic. A change for the better means any alteration, modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce positive changes, development should be purposeful, planned and progressive. This is how curriculum evolves, Some authors define curriculum as the total effort of the school to bring about desired outcomes in the school and out-of-school situations. It is also defined as a sequence of potential experiences set up in school for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting Howel and Evans (1995) define curriculum as standard set of learning outcomes or task that educators usually call goals and objectives, while other writers define curriculum as” the what of teaching”, or listing of subjects to be taught in school. Curriculum is a document which describes as structured series of learning objectives and outcomes for a given subject matter/ area. It includes a specification of what should be learned, how it should be taught, and the plan for implementing/ assessing the learning. Curriculum Development , therefore, may be defines as the process of selecting, organizing, executing and evaluating the learning experiences on the basis of the nature of the society or community. It is a continuous process for the possibilities of improving the teaching-learing situation. Its goal is a positive change; process and transformation in the lives of the learners based on the schools mission and goals. Models of Curriculum Development Ralph Tyler Model ( also known as Tyler’s Rationale)\he posited forum fundamental questions or principles in examining any curriculum: 95 What educational purposes should schools seek to attain? What educational experiences can be provided that is likely to attain these purposes? How can these educational experiences can be effectively organized? How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not? BwWNE Tyler’s Model shows that in the curriculum development the following considerations should be made” 1. Purpose of the school 2. Educational experiences related to the purpose 3. Organization of the experiences 4. Evaluation of the experiences/ outcomes Hilda Taba Model- She improved on Tyler’s Rationale by making a linear model. She believes that teachers who teach or implement the curriculum should participate in developing it. Her advocacy was Called the “grassroots approach” Presented seven majors steps her model, where teachers could have a major input. Diagnosis of learners needs and expectations of the larger society Formulation of learning objectives Selection of the learning content Organization of the learning content Selection of the learning experiences Organization of learning activities Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it. NAME wnp Thus, looking at the curriculum models , the three interacting process in curriculum development are: (1) planning; (2) implementing; and (3) evaluating. The Francis Hunkin’s Decidion-Making Model What sets this model a part is its recommended first stage of curricular decision-making. The first stage requires that participants to engage in deliberation regarding the nature curriculum and _ also its educational and social political value. This approach addresses the concerns of reconceptualists, of putting stress on the understanding the nature and power of curriculum The Model has seven major stages: Curriculum conceptualization and legitimization Diagnosis Content selection Experience selection Implementation Evaluation Maintenance Neon PWN 96 Curriculum Design Models 1. Subject-Centered Design model- focuses on the content of the curriculum. Corresponds mostly to the textbook written for the specific subject. In this design, schools divided the school hours across different subjects. * Subject Design- this is the oldest and so far the most familiar for teachers, parents and other layman. It is easy to deliver, has complementary books, written, and available support instructional materials. The drawback is that learning is so compartmentalized. It stresses the content so much that it forgets about student’s natural tendencies, interests and experiences. Discipline Design. Related to the subject design, but focuses on academic discipline. It is often used in college. Correlation Design- This comes from a core, correlated curriculum designs that links separate subjects designs in order to reduce fragmentation. Subjects related to one another, but each subject maintains identity. Broad Field design/interdisciplinary- it is variation of the subject-centered design. This design was made to prevent the compartmentalization of subjects and integrate the contents that are related to each other. It sometimes called a holistic curriculum because it draws around themes and integration. 2. Learner-Centered Design- Among the progressive educational psychologists, the learner is the center of the educative process. The emphasis is very strong in the elementary level. However, more concern has been placed on the secondary and even the tertiary level. In high school, the subject or content has become the focus and in the college level, the discipline is the center. Both levels, however still recognize the importance of the learner in the curriculum. * Child-centered Design- attributed to the influence of John Dewey, Rouseau, Pestallozi, and Froebel. The curriculum is anchored on the needs and interest of the child. The is not considered as a passive individual, but as on, who engages with his/her environment. One learns by doing. Learners actively create and construct meaning and understanding as viewed by the constructivists. Learners interact with the teachers and environment. Thus, there is a collaborative effort on both sides of the plan lessons, select content, and do activities together. Learning is the product of the child’s interaction with the environment. Experienced-Centered Design- This is similar to child-centered design. Although the child remains to be the focus, experience-centered design believes that the interests and needs of the learners cannot be pre-planned. Instead, experiences of the learners become the starting point of the curriculum. Thus, the school environment is left open and free. Learners are made to choose from various activities that the teacher provides. The learners are empowered to shape their own learning form different opportunities given by the teacher. The emergence of multiple intelligence blends well with experience-centered design curriculum. Humanistic Design- The key personalities in this curriculum design were Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Maslow’s theory of self-actualization explains that a person who achieves this level is accepting of self, others and nature; is simple , spontaneous and natural; is open to different experiences; possesses 97