Reviewer for Finals - Introduction to Psychology, Study notes of Introduction to Psychology

Download Reviewer for Finals - Introduction to Psychology and more Study notes Introduction to Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! Fin R E V I E W E R Inodon Pyol Dreams - The meaning of dreams varies across dierent cultures and periods of time. Sigmund Freud - German psychiatrist - had become convinced that dreams represented an opportunity to gain access to the unconscious. - By analyzing dreams, He thought people could increase self-awareness and gain valuable insight to help them deal with the problems they faced in their lives. - Freud made distinctions between the manifest content and the latent content of dreams. ● Manifest content - the actual content, or storyline, of a dream. ● Latent content - refers to the hidden meaning of a dream. - For instance, if a woman dreams about being chased by a snake, Freud might have argued that this represents the woman’s fear of sexual intimacy, with the snake serving as a symbol of a man’s penis. Carl Jung - The 20th century Swiss psychiatrist believed that dreams allowed us to tap into the collective unconscious. - Collective unconscious - is a theoretical repository of information he believed to be shared by everyone. - certain symbols in dreams reected universal archetypes with meanings that are similar for all people regardless of culture or location. Rosalind Cartwright - The sleep and dreaming researcher - believes that dreams simply reect life events that are important to the dreamer. - Unlike Freud and Jung, Cartwright’s ideas about dreaming have found empirical support. - For example, she and her colleagues published a study in which women going through divorce were asked several times over a ve month period to report the degree to which their former spouses were on their minds. These same women were awakened during REM sleep in order to provide a detailed account of their dream content. Reel | 1 - There was a signicant positive correlation between the degree to which women thought about their former spouses during waking hours and the number of times their former spouses appeared as characters in their dreams (Cartwright, Agargun, Kirkby, & Friedman, 2006). - Pag laging iniisip ang isang bagay, mas possible na mag appear siya sa dreams. Recent research (Horikawa, Tamaki, Miyawaki, & Kamitani, 2013) has uncovered new techniques by which researchers may eectively detect and classify the visual images that occur during dreaming by using fMRI for neural measurement of brain activity patterns, opening the way for additional research in this area. Recently, neuroscientists have also become interested in understanding why we dream. For example, Hobson (2009) suggests that dreaming may represent a state of protoconsciousness. In other words, dreaming involves constructing a virtual reality in our heads that we might use to help us during wakefulness. Among a variety of neurobiological evidence, John Hobson cites research on lucid dreams as an opportunity to better understand dreaming in general. Lucid dreams - are dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state. - In a lucid dream, a person becomes aware of the fact that they are dreaming, and as such, they can control the dream’s content (LaBerge, 1990). What does it mean when we dream? - Dreams are stories and images that our minds create while we sleep. They can be entertaining, fun, romantic, disturbing, frightening, and sometimes bizarre. They are an enduring source of mystery for scientists and psychological doctors. Why do dreams occur? What causes them? Can we control them? What do they mean? ● We may not remember dreaming, but everyone is thought to dream between 3 and 6 times per night ● It is thought that each dream lasts between 5 to 20 minutes. ● Around 95 percent of dreams are forgotten by the time a person gets out of bed. ● Dreaming can help you learn and develop long-term memories. ● Blind people dream more with other sensory components compared with sighted people. Why Do We Dream? There are several theories about why we dream. Are dreams merely part of the sleep cycle, or do they serve some other purpose? Possible explanations include: ● Representing unconscious desires and wishes ● Interpreting random signals from the brain and body during sleep ● Consolidating and processing information Reel | 2 - The underlying assumption of continual-activation theory is that, during REM sleep, the unconscious part of the brain is busy processing procedural memory. - Meanwhile, the level of activation in the conscious part of the brain descends to a very low level as the inputs from the senses are basically disconnected. - This triggers the “continual-activation” mechanism to generate a data stream from the memory stores to ow through to the conscious part of the brain. Other Theories About Why We Dream Many other theories have been suggested to account for why we dream. ● One theory contends that dreams are the result of our brains trying to interpret external stimuli (such as a dog's bark, music, or a baby's cry) during sleep. ● Another theory uses a computer metaphor to account for dreams, noting that dreams serve to "clean up" clutter from the mind, refreshing the brain for the next day. ● The reverse-learning theory - suggests that we dream to forget. Our brains have thousands of neural connections between memories—too many to remember them all—and that dreaming is part of "pruning" those connections. ● The continual-activation theory - We dream to keep the brain active while we sleep, in order to keep it functioning properly. Lucid Dreaming - relatively rare dreams where the dreamer has awareness of being in their dream and often has some control over the dream content. - Research indicates that around 50% of people recall having had at least one lucid dream in their lifetime and just over 10% report having them two or more times per month. - It is unknown why certain people experience lucid dreams more frequently than others. While experts are unclear as to why or how lucid dreaming occurs, preliminary research signals that the prefrontal and parietal regions of the brain play a signicant role. Stress Dreams - Stressful experiences tend to show up with great frequency in our dreams. Stress dreams may be described as sad, scary, and a nightmare. - Experts do not fully understand how or why specic stressful content ends up in our dreams, but many point to a variety of theories, including the continuity hypothesis, adaptive strategy, and emotional regulation dream theories to explain these occurrences. - Stress dreams and mental health seem to go hand-in-hand. - Daily stress shows up in dreams: Reel | 5 - Research has shown that those who experience greater levels of worry in their waking lives and people diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) report higher frequency and intensity of nightmares. - Mental health disorders may contribute to stress dreams: - Those with mental health disorders such as anxiety, bipolar disorder, and depression tend to have more distressing dreams, as well as more diculty sleeping in general. - Anxiety is linked to stress dreams: - Research indicates a strong connection between anxiety and stressful dream content. - These dreams may be the brain's attempt to help us cope with and make sense of these stressful experiences. Dreams most likely happen during REM sleep. There are ve phases of sleep in a sleep cycle: ● Stage 1: - Light sleep - slow eye movement - reduced muscle activity. - This stage forms 4 to 5 percent of total sleep. ● Stage 2 - Eye movement stops - Brain waves become slower, with occasional bursts of rapid waves called sleep spindles. - This stage forms 45 to 55 percent of total sleep. ● Stage 3 - Extremely slow brain waves called delta waves begin to appear, interspersed with smaller, faster waves. - This accounts for 4 to 6 percent of total sleep. ● Stage 4 - The brain produces delta waves almost exclusively. - It is dicult to wake someone during stages 3 and 4, which together are called “deep sleep.” - There is no eye movement or muscle activity. - People awakened while in deep sleep do not adjust immediately and often feel disoriented for several minutes after waking up. - This forms 12 to 15 percent of total sleep. ● Stage 5 - This stage is known as rapid eye movement (REM). Reel | 6 - Breathing becomes more rapid, irregular, and shallow, eyes jerk rapidly in various directions, and limb muscles become temporarily paralyzed. - Heart rate increases, blood pressure rises, and males develop penile erections. - When people awaken during REM sleep, they often describe bizarre and illogical tales. - These are dreams. This stage accounts for 20 to 25 percent of total sleep time. Dream lag - when the images, experiences, or people that emerge in dreams are images, experiences, or people you have seen recently, perhaps the previous day or a week before. - The idea is that certain types of experiences take a week to become encoded into long-term memory, and some of the images from the consolidation process will appear in a dream. - Events experienced while awake are said to feature in 1 to 2 percent of dream reports, although 65 percent of dream reports reect aspects of recent waking life experiences. Memory types and dreaming Two types of memory can form the basis of a dream. ● autobiographical memories - or long-lasting memories about the self ● episodic memories - which are memories about specic episodes or events Forgetting dreams - Studies of brain activity suggest that most people over the age of 10 years dream between 4 and 6 times each night, but some people rarely remember dreaming. - It is often said that 5 minutes after a dream, people have forgotten 50 percent of its content, increasing to 90 percent another 5 minutes later. - Most dreams are entirely forgotten by the time someone wakes up, but it is not known precisely why dreams are so hard to remember. Steps that may help improve dream recall, include: ● waking up naturally and not with an alarm ● focusing on the dream as much as possible upon waking ● writing down as much about the dream as possible upon waking ● making recording dreams a routine Who remembers their dreams? - There are factors that can potentially inuence who remembers their dreams, how much of the dream remains intact, and how vivid it is. ● Age: - Over time, a person is likely to experience changes in sleep timing, structure, and electroencephalographic (EEG) activity. Can dreams predict the future? Reel | 7 - At night, when there is less light, your brain triggers the release of melatonin, a hormone that makes you sleepy. - When the sun comes up in the morning, the brain tells the body that it’s time to wake up. - When your circadian rhythms are disrupted or thrown o, you may feel groggy, disoriented, and sleepy at inconvenient times. - Circadian rhythms have been linked to a variety of sleeping problems and sleep disorders, as well as depression, bipolar disorder, and seasonal aective disorder (the winter blues). Shift work sleep disorder - Shift work sleep disorder occurs when your work schedule and your biological clock are out of sync. - In our 24-hour society, many people have to work night shifts, early morning shifts, or rotating shifts. - These schedules force you to work when your body is telling you to go to sleep, and sleep when your body is signaling you to wake. - While some people adjust better than others to the demands of shift work, most shift workers get less quality sleep than their daytime counterparts. - As a result of sleep deprivation, you may struggle with sleepiness and mental lethargy on the job. - This cuts into your productivity and puts you at risk of injury. Delayed sleep phase disorder - Delayed sleep phase disorder is a condition where your biological clock is signicantly delayed. - As a result, you go to sleep and wake up much later than other people. - This is more than just a preference for staying up late or being a night owl, but rather a disorder that makes it dicult for you to keep normal hours—to make it to morning classes, get the kids to school on time, or keep a 9-to-5 job. - People with delayed sleep phase disorder are unable to get to sleep earlier than 2 to 6 a.m., no matter how hard they try. Reel | 10 - When allowed to keep their own hours (such as during a school break or vacation), they fall into a regular sleep schedule. - Delayed sleep phase disorder is most common in teenagers, and many teens will eventually grow out of it. - For those who continue to struggle with a biological clock that is out of sync, treatments such as light therapy and chronotherapy can help. Jet lag - Jet lag is a temporary disruption in circadian rhythms that occurs when you travel across time zones. - Symptoms include daytime sleepiness, fatigue, headaches, stomach problems, and insomnia. - Symptoms are more pronounced the longer the ight and ying east tends to cause worse jet lag than ying west. - In general, it usually takes one day per time zone crossed to adjust to the local time. So, if you ew from Los Angeles to New York, crossing three time zones, your jet lag should be gone within three days. Many people experience disturbances in their sleep at some point in their lives. Depending on the population and sleep disorder being studied, between 30% and 50% of the population suers from a sleep disorder at some point in their lives (Bixler, Kales, Soldatos, Kaels, & Healey, 1979; Hossain & Shapiro, 2002; Ohayon, 1997, 2002; Ohayon & Roth, 2002). This section will describe several sleep disorders as well as some of their treatment options. Parasomnias - A parasomnia is one of a group of sleep disorders in which unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep play a role. - occur in either REM or NREM phases of sleep. Sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and night terrors are all examples of parasomnias (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Sleepwalking - Somnambulism Reel | 11 - the sleeper engages in relatively complex behaviors ranging from wandering about to driving an automobile. - During periods of sleepwalking, sleepers often have their eyes open, but they are not responsive to attempts to communicate with them. - Sleepwalking most often occurs during slow-wave sleep, but it can occur at any time during a sleep period in some aected individuals (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). - Historically, somnambulism has been treated with a variety of pharmacotherapies ranging from benzodiazepines to antidepressants. - However, the success rate of such treatments is questionable. Guilleminault et al. (2005) found that sleepwalking was not alleviated with the use of benzodiazepines. However, all of their somnambulistic patients who also suered from sleep-related breathing problems showed a marked decrease in sleepwalking when their breathing problems were eectively treated. REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD) - occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur. - Individuals who suer from RBD have high levels of physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams. - These behaviors vary widely, but they can include kicking, punching, scratching, yelling, and behaving like an animal that has been frightened or attacked. - People who suer from this disorder can injure themselves or their sleeping partners when engaging in these behaviors. - Furthermore, these types of behaviors ultimately disrupt sleep, although aected individuals have no memories that these behaviors have occurred (Arnulf, 2012). - This disorder is associated with a number of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease. - In fact, this relationship is so robust that some view the presence of RBD as a potential aid in the diagnosis and treatment of a number of neurodegenerative diseases (Ferini-Strambi, 2011). - Clonazepam, an anti-anxiety medication with sedative properties, is most often used to treat RBD. Reel | 12 - Cognitive-behavioral therapy is a type of psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors. - The treatment of insomnia likely would include stress management techniques and changes in problematic behaviors that could contribute to insomnia (e.g., spending more waking time in bed). - Cognitive-behavioral therapy has been demonstrated to be quite eective in treating insomnia (Savard, Simard, Ivers, & Morin, 2005; Williams, Roth, Vatthauer, & McCrae, 2013). Abnormal Psychology Sexual Dysfunctions and paraphilia - Manifestation if hindi maaayos yung psychosexual development Unconscious - Hindi pa gaano kalinaw - Nakatago - Possible na hindi pa nalalaman Ego defense mechanism - Sigmund freud - Use in daily basis - Cope w/ anxiety - Hindi dapat araw-araw because you will live in fantasy, nakakalimutan yung reality - Ex. displacement - Galit/ frustration is naibibigay directly toward to objects/person na hindi related sa kinaiinis - Ex. denial - Thinking na okay lang ang lahat - deny - Ex. sublimation - Allows us to act acceptable like yung galit inilalabas sa badminton etc. - Ex. rationalize - If negative yung kinalabasan, nagkakaroon ng realization - Ex. compensation - If nag f-fail, pupunan na lang ng iba - Like if mababa ako sa science, tataasan na lang sa ibang subject Reel | 15 Sexual Dysfunctions and paraphilia Paraphilia - Not normal - More on sexual intercourse - If you cannot function well because of sexual intercourse ang laging iniisip - Emotional disorder - Atleast 6 months - Voyeurism - Watching an unsuspecting/non-consenting individual who is either nude, disrobing, or engaging in sexual activity - Exhibitionism - Exposing one’s own genitals to an unsuspecting person - satisfaction - Frotteurism - Satisfaction in touching/rubbing against a non-consenting person - Sexual Masochism - sinasaktan - Sexual sadism - nanakit - Pedophilia - Engage in sexual activity w/ a child 13 yrs old and younger - Fetishism - Sexual fascination w/ non-living objects or highly specic body parts - Somnophilia - Arousal by a person who is unconscious - Urophilia - Transvestism - Cross-dressing that is sexually arousing and interferes w/ functioning - Straight guys - Autogynephilia - Men become arouse thinking/visualizing himself as a woman - Nycrophillia(?) - Sexual intercourse to dead bodies - Vysdiality(rape to animals)? Or zoopedia? - Sexual intercourse to animals Sexual Dysfunctions Reel | 16 - Desire disorders - Arousal disorders - Orgasms disorders - Pain disorders Dysfunctions Dysfunctions of sexual desire Hypoactive sexual desire disorder, sexual aversion disorder Little or no sexual drive or interest Dysfunctions of sexual arousal Female sexual arousal disorder Inability to achieve or maintain an erection (formerly known as impotence) No responsiveness to erotic Dysfunctions of Orgasm Premature ejaculation Male orgasmic disorder Female orgasmic disorder Unsatisfactorily brief period between the beginning of sexual stimulation and the occurrence of ejaculation. Inability to ejaculate during intercourse (also known as retarded ejaculation) Diculty in achieving organism, either manually or during sexual intercourse Sexual pain disorder Vaginismus Dyspareunia Involuntary muscle spasm at the entrance to the vagina that prevents penetration and sexual intercourse. Painful coitus; may have either an organic or psychological basis If ilang years na nag sesexual intercourse, and masakit pa din, its not normal Reel | 17