“ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK 'N' ROLL, 1954–1959, Exams of Marketing

Download “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK 'N' ROLL, 1954–1959 and more Exams Marketing in PDF only on Docsity! CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 Chapter Outline I. Rock ’n’ Roll, 1954–1959 A. The advent of rock ’n’ roll during the mid-1950s brought about enormous changes in American popular music. B. Styles previously considered on the margins of mainstream popular music were infiltrating the center and eventually came to dominate it. C. R&B and country music recordings were no longer geared toward a specialized market. 1. Began to be heard on mainstream pop radio 2. Could be purchased nationwide in music stores that catered to the general public D. Misconceptions 1. It is important to not mythologize or endorse common misconceptions about the emergence of rock ’n’ roll. a) Rock ’n’ roll was not a new style of music or even any single style of music. CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 b) The era of rock ’n’ roll was not the first time music was written specifically to appeal to young people. c) Rock ’n’ roll was not the first American music to bring black and white pop styles into close interaction. d) “Rock ’n’ roll” was a designation that was introduced as a commercial and marketing term for the purpose of identifying a new target for music products. II. The Rise of Rhythm & Blues and the Teenage Market A. The target audience for rock ’n’ roll during the 1950s consisted of baby boomers, Americans born after World War II. 1. Relatively young target audience 2. An audience that shared some specific important characteristics of group cultural identity: a) Recovering from the trauma of World War II—return to normalcy b) Growing up in the relative economic stability and prosperity of the 1950s yet under the threat of atomic war between the United States and the USSR CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 b) As a disc jockey, he played an important role in broadening the audience for R&B among white teenagers during the early 1950s. c) During the rock ’n’ roll years, he supported black artists by securing them appearances in films and promoting concerts for racially mixed audiences. d) He would also regularly feature black artists’ records on his radio show. e) Freed promoted African American musicians in the face of resistance in society as a whole to the idea of racial integration. 4. WINS and New York City a) Freed moved his very successful radio show to WINS in New York in 1954. b) By 1954, dozens of R&B disc jockeys emerged around the country with shows aimed at white, middle-class teenage audiences. c) Freed was featured in three films: Rock around the Clock (1956), Rock, Rock, Rock, (1956), and Don’t Knock the Rock (1957). CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 5. By 1958, he was a national celebrity; however, his fame and fortune did not last long. a) His preference for original R&B records instead of the white cover versions put him at odds with the music industry. b) In 1958, his TV show, Rock ’n’ Roll Dance Party, was cancelled when the camera showed Frankie Lymon, a black teenage singer, dancing with a white girl. c) Later that year, he was charged with inciting a riot when fights broke out at a concert he promoted in Boston. d) His career was ruined by payola investigations. He was accused of accepting bribes from record companies and was fired by WABC in 1959. e) In 1962, he was found guilty of commercial bribery. In 1964, unemployed and suffering from alcoholism, he was charged with income tax evasion. f) He died before his case came to trial. III. Cover Versions and Early Rock ’n’ Roll A. Cover versions CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 1. Copies of previously recorded performances; often adaptations of the originals’ style and sensibility, and usually aimed at cashing in on their success 2. Often were bowdlerized imitations of R&B songs 3. Usually performed by white singers such as Pat Boone 4. Helped fuel the market for rock ’n’ roll B. The “Little Bird Told Me” decision 1. A 1947 recording of “A Little Bird Told Me” by R&B star Paula Watson for the independent label Supreme was covered in 1951 by singer Evelyn Knight for Decca Records. 2. Supreme sued Decca and lost the case. A judge ruled that musical arrangements are not copyrightable property. 3. This case opened the gates for cover versions. C. Big Joe Turner (1911–85) 1. Often called the original and greatest “blues shouter” because of his spirited, sometimes raucous vocal delivery 2. Born in Kansas City, started out singing with local bands led by Bennie Moten, Andy Kirk, and Count Basie CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 2. Cover version by The Crew Cuts a) One of the most famous cover versions of the era b) Number One for nine weeks in 1954 c) Begins with scat singing d) No sax solo—group nonsense-syllable singing and timpani stroke e) Sounds more like a novelty record f) Crooner style F. Cover: “Mystery Train” 1. Original version recorded in 1953 by Herman (“Little Junior”) Parker (1927–71) and his band, Little Junior’s Blue Flames, for Sun Records a) Received little attention at the time of its release b) Strophic twelve-bar blues structure, with one harmonic irregularity c) Darkly evocative record with obvious roots both in rural blues and in R&B traditions CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 d) Instrumentation—typical R&B lineup for its time: electric guitar, acoustic bass, piano, drums, and saxophone e) “Chugging” rhythm conveys the train’s steady, inexorable momentum f) Saxophone evokes the train’s whistle g) Vocals imitate the sound of the train’s brakes as it finally comes to a stop h) Articulates a pessimistic worldview characteristic of the blues by asserting that the singer may triumph over adversity, but only temporarily 2. Cover version—recorded early in 1955 by Elvis Presley for Sun Records a) The last record that Elvis made with Sam Phillips before he signed with RCA Victor b) More aggressive and raw than the original c) The expression of a young white singer looking with optimism toward an essentially unbounded future, flush with new possibilities for stylistic synthesis that would help ensure both CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 intensely satisfying personal expression and an unprecedented degree of popular success d) Less a traditional cover than a reconceptualization of the song 3. The two versions demonstrate the synergy between R&B and country music that led to rock ’n’ roll and the essential role of small, independent record labels in disseminating “marginal” music. G. The rock ’n’ roll business 1. The vitality of the American economy after World War II pushed the profits of the entertainment industry to new levels. a) Sales of record players and radios expanded significantly after the war. b) Total annual record sales in the United States rose from $191 million in 1951 to $514 million in 1959. 2. Growth was accompanied by a gradual diversification of mainstream popular taste and the reemergence of indie record companies. a) Most of these smaller companies specialized in R&B and country and western recordings. b) They began to attract a large national audience. CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 (2) “See You Later, Alligator” (Number Six, 1956) 4. Their largest success came in 1955 with “Rock around the Clock” (Number One, 1955). a) Recorded in 1954 and not a big hit when first released b) Popularized in the 1955 movie Blackboard Jungle, a film about inner-city teenagers and juvenile delinquency c) Became the first rock ’n’ roll record to be a Number One pop hit d) Stayed in the top spot for eight consecutive weeks during the summer of 1955 e) Eventually sold over twenty-two million copies worldwide f) “Rock around the Clock” demonstrated the unprecedented success that a white group with a country background could achieve playing a twelve-bar blues song driven by the sounds of electric guitar, bass, and drums. g) Signaled the enormous changes in American popular music and opened the floodgates for artists like Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, and Buddy Holly. CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 I. The electric guitar 1. Rock ’n’ roll elevated the electric guitar to a central position in American popular music. 2. Development of the electric guitar shows the complex relationship between technological developments and changing musical styles. 3. Up through the end of World War II, the guitar was found mainly in popular music that originated in the South (blues and hillbilly music) and in various “exotic” genres (Hawaiian and Latin American guitar records were quite popular in the 1920s and 1930s). 4. Because of its low volume, the acoustic guitar was difficult to use in large dance bands and equally difficult to record. 5. Engineers began to experiment with electronically amplified guitars in the 1920s. 6. In 1931, the Electro String Instrument Company (better known as Rickenbacker) introduced the first commercially produced electric guitars. a) Laid across the player’s knees like the steel or Hawai’ian guitars used in country music and blues, these instruments were called “frying pans” because of their distinctive round bodies and long necks. CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 7. By the mid-1930s, the Gibson Company had introduced a hollow-body guitar with a new type of pickup—a magnetic plate or coil attached to the body of the guitar, which converts the physical vibrations of its strings into patterns of electric energy. a) This pickup later became known as the Charlie Christian pickup after the young African American guitarist from Texas (1916–42) who introduced the guitar into Benny Goodman’s band and helped pioneer the modern jazz style called “bebop.” 8. The solid-body electric guitar a) Developed after World War II b) First used in R&B, blues, and country bands c) The first commercially produced solid-body electric guitar was the Fender Broadcaster (soon renamed the Telecaster), brainchild of Leo Fender and George Fullerton. (1) This model, released in 1948, featured two electronic pickups, knobs to control volume and tone (timbre), and a switch so that the two pickups could be used alone or together, enabling the player to create a palette of sounds. CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 2. Little Richard’s outrageous performance style attracted attention through strangeness, novelty, and sexual ambiguity. 3. Fats Domino most directly embodied the continuity of R&B with rock ’n’ roll. 4. All three crossed over to the pop charts and had mainstream success within a few months of the massive success of Bill Haley’s “Rock around the Clock.” B. Charles Edward Anderson (“Chuck”) Berry (b. 1926) 1. Born in California but grew up in St. Louis 2. Absorbed blues and R&B styles 3. One of the first and most successful black musicians to consciously forge his own version of blues and R&B styles for appeal to the mass market 4. Knew country music and found that his performances of country songs in clubs appealed strongly to the white members of his audience C. Listening: “Maybellene” 1. Distantly modeled on a country number called “Ida Red” 2. Primary elements trace their roots clearly to R&B: CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 a) Thick, buzzing timbre of Berry’s electric guitar b) Blue notes and slides in both voice and guitar c) Socking backbeat of the drum d) Form derived from twelve-bar blues structures 3. Original elements: a) Explosive tempo b) No vocal-based R&B song had ever gone at this pace. c) It is difficult to articulate words and breathe at this tempo. d) The lyrics describe a lover’s quarrel in the form of a car chase. e) Punning invented verb form (“motorvatin’”) f) Humorous details (“rain water blowin’” under the automobile hood, which is “doin’ my motor good”) g) Breathless ending in which the singer catches Maybellene in her Cadillac at the top of a hill h) Implied class distinction in the lyrics between Maybellene, in her top-of-the-line Cadillac Coupe de Ville, and the narrator, in his “V-8 Ford” CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 4. Form a) Verse-chorus form based on the twelve-bar blues b) Chorus—“Maybellene, why can’t you be true” follows the twelve-bar blues chord pattern. c) Verse—no chord changes—all on the “home” (or tonic) chord d) Voice delivers rapid-fire lyrics using brief, repetitive patterns of notes. e) Repetitive melodic formulas allow Berry to concentrate on articulating the densely packed words; the continuous verbal activity more than compensates for the lack of musical variety. f) Verses build enormous tension, so that when the choruses and chord changes return, there is a feeling of release and expansion. 5. “Maybellene” is a beautifully formed record, building inexorably from start to finish, where everything is made to count, without a single word or note wasted. 6. The record opens arrestingly with the sound of Berry’s hollow-body electric guitar playing a bluesy lick that sizzles with sonic energy. CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 (2) Berry relates the story of a “country boy” who “never learned to read or write so well” but who “could play a guitar just like a-ringin’ a bell.” (3) The “country boy” was originally a “colored boy,” but Berry opted to make his tale color-blind, recognizing the diversity of his audience and the potential universality of his myth. f) Berry is probably the only musician of his generation to be inescapably influential on three essential fronts: (1) Brilliantly clever and articulate lyricist and songwriter (2) Fine rock ’n’ roll vocal stylist (3) Pioneering electric guitarist 11. The mass adulation belonged to Elvis Presley, but the greatest influence on musicians was unquestionably Berry. D. Richard Wayne Penniman (“Little Richard”) (b. 1932) 1. Early career as an R&B performer 2. Hit the pop charts in 1956 with the song “Tutti-Frutti” CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 a) Alternated nonsense choruses (“Tutti-frutti, au rutti, a-wop- bop-a-loom-op a-lop-bam-boom!”) with nonspecific but obviously leering verses (“I got a gal named Sue, she knows just what to do”) b) Delivered in an uninhibited shouting style, complete with falsetto whoops c) Accompanied with a pounding band led by Little Richard’s uninhibited piano 3. Little Richard epitomized the abandon celebrated in rock ’n’ roll lyrics and music. 4. Both the sound of his recordings and the visual characteristics of his performances made Little Richard an exceptionally strong influence on later performers. 5. He performed in three rock ’n’ roll movies during the two years of his greatest popular success, 1956–57: Don’t Knock the Rock, The Girl Can’t Help It, and Mister Rock ’n’ Roll. 6. Listening: “Long Tall Sally” a) Built on the twelve-bar blues, adapted to reflect the more traditionally pop-friendly format of verse-chorus CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 b) Here, the first four bars of each blues stanza are set to changing words—verses—while the remaining eight bars, with unchanging words, function as a repeated chorus. E. Antoine “Fats” Domino (b. 1928) 1. Born and raised in New Orleans 2. An established presence on the R&B charts for several years before scoring rock ’n’ roll hits 3. His large-scale pop breakthrough was in 1955 with “Ain’t It a Shame” (Number Ten pop, Number One R&B). 4. Popularized the distinctive New Orleans sound 5. His distinctive regional style exemplifies the strong connections between rock ’n’ roll and earlier pop music. 6. His early influences include a) jazz, especially boogie-woogie, b) the R&B piano style of Professor Longhair (1918–80; real name Henry Roeland Byrd), and c) the jump band style of trumpeter Dave Bartholomew’s ensemble. CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 (2) “Mystery Train” b) The biggest rock ’n’ roll star to come from the country side of the music 4. RCA Victor a) Bought out Presley’s contract from Sun in late 1955 for $35,000 b) Turned the “hillbilly cat” into a mainstream performer without compromising his appeal to teenagers 5. Presley’s manager, Colonel Thomas Parker, saw to it that Presley was featured repeatedly on television variety shows and in a series of romantic Hollywood films. 6. RCA’s Nashville producer Chet Atkins saw to it that Presley’s records for the label were made pop-friendly. 7. Presley’s television performances were denounced by authorities as vulgar because of the singer’s hip-shaking gyrations. 8. His television performances were attended by hordes of screaming young fans and were watched by millions of young viewers. CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 9. Presley’s records racked up astronomical sales as he dominated the pop charts steadily from 1956 on into the early 1960s. 10. He established himself as the biggest-selling solo artist of rock ’n’ roll, and then as the biggest-selling solo recording artist of any period and style—a title he still holds at the beginning of the twenty-first century. 11. Presley’s biggest hit, “Don’t Be Cruel,” topped the charts for eleven weeks in the late summer and fall of 1956, eventually yielding pride of place to another Presley record, “Love Me Tender.” 12. Listening: “Don’t Be Cruel” a) Based on the twelve-bar blues b) Presley’s vocal is heavy with blues-derived and country inflections (1) A striking regional accent (2) “Hiccupping” effect c) The strong backbeat throughout evokes R&B. d) The repeated electric guitar figure at the opening is reminiscent of rhythmic ideas favored by western swing bands. CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 e) Imposed on all these diverse and intense stylistic elements is a wash of electronic reverb—an attempt by the engineers at RCA’s Nashville studios to emulate the distinctive (and decidedly low- tech) “slap-back” echo sound of Presley’s previous recordings on Sun Records. f) There is also the sweetening sound of the backing vocal group, the Jordanaires, whose precise “bop, bop”s and crooning “aah”s and “ooo”s are doubly rooted in white gospel music and in the most genteel, established, mainstream pop style. g) The commercial success of these records was unprecedented, and their mixture of styles was yet another indication of the extent to which the traditional barriers in pop music were falling down. 13. “Hound Dog,” on the other side of “Don’t Be Cruel,” was Presley’s version of a song that had been a major R&B hit in 1953 for Big Mama Thornton. a) Big Mama Thornton’s version is full of sexual innuendo. b) This innuendo is absent from Presley’s rendition. 14. Presley’s extraordinary popularity established rock ’n’ roll as an unprecedented mass-market phenomenon. CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 8. Killed in a plane crash in 1959 along with Richie Valens and the Big Bopper (J. P. Richardson) 9. The Beatles modeled their insect-based name, their four-piece instrumental lineup, and aspects of their vocal style on the Crickets. 10. Holly was an important rock ’n’ roll songwriter. a) Songs that he wrote and recorded include “Everyday,” “Not Fade Away,” and “Rave On.” b) Holly’s work with arrangements and studio effects looked forward to some of the recording techniques of the 1960s. (1) He frequently used double tracking, two nearly identical versions of a vocal or an instrumental part recorded on top of each other. (2) Some of his last records used orchestral strings. CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 C. Listening: “La Bamba” 1. Traditional Mexican folk song a) In the style of son jarocho, a fiery, up-tempo genre that alternates vocal refrains with rapid improvisational passages, accompanied by an ensemble of stringed instruments 2. Adaptation by Ritchie Valens (1941–1959) a) Performed/recorded in 1958 in Los Angeles b) Helped create a distinctive Los Angeles rock ’n’ roll sound c) Lyrics exclusively in Spanish d) Sonic texture of the recording shaped by the unique tone quality of the instruments used 3. Valens’s recording career lasted only 8 months, cut short by the plane crash that also killed Buddy Holly and the Big Bopper. VI. Wild, Wild Young Women: The Lady Vanishes A. Early rock ’n’ roll was dominated by male artists. CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 1. Women who aggressively embraced the new stylistic trends were a negligible presence on the charts. B. Wanda Jackson (b. 1937 in Oklahoma) 1. Multitalented singer, instrumentalist, and songwriter 2. Successful country singer who toured with Hank Thompson 3. As a teenager, she switched to a rockabilly style at the encouragement of Elvis Presley. 4. Her first rockabilly song was “I Gotta Know,” recorded in 1956. a) A transitional song for her, it presented the unique pairing of breakneck, rocking verses with a moderately paced, country-waltz chorus. 5. Between late 1956 and early 1958, Jackson recorded fierce performances of unapologetic rockers like “Hot Dog! That Made Him Mad,” “Fujiyama Mama,” “Let’s Have A Party,” and her own “Mean Mean Man.” 6. Established herself as one of the most powerful and convincing rockabilly musicians of her time CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 3. Cut some scintillating rockabilly records for Columbia between 1956 and 1958 4. In particular, “Heartbeat” and “Mercy,” both written by the Collins Kids themselves, feature the intense sound of Lorrie Collins’s solo voice. 5. Neither these nor any of their other recordings made the charts. F. Like Wanda Jackson, these three women all were gifted rock ’n’ roll performers at a young age. 1. Martin, Campbell, and Collins are so obscure today that they have been written out of history. 2. Clearly, the essential conservatism of the 1950s, politically and culturally, made it a particularly inauspicious time to be seen as a rebellious and empowered young woman. 3. Given the tenor of the times, an empowered black female rock ’n’ roll “idol” would have been even more unlikely—which is why African American women have played no part in this discussion. 4. The Bobbettes a) Group of five African American schoolgirls from New York’s Harlem CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 b) In 1957, scored a rock ’n’ roll hit about their fifth-grade teacher, “Mr. Lee” (Number Six pop, Number One R&B) G. Connie Francis (b. Concetta Rosa Maria Franconero, 1938, in New Jersey) 1. The first woman recording “star” of the rock ’n’ roll era 2. String of hit records began in 1958 with her revival of a Tin Pan Alley tune from 1923, “Who’s Sorry Now” 3. Occasionally performed bona fide rockers (such as “Stupid Cupid,” Number Fourteen pop in 1958, and “Lipstick on Your Collar,” Number Five pop in 1959) 4. More of a mainstream pop singer who appreciated the importance of appealing to the new young audience 5. Compared with someone like Wanda Jackson, Connie Francis—both on records and in her public image—seemed, if not demure, at least utterly unthreatening. H. Brenda Lee (b. Brenda Mae Tarpley, 1944, in Georgia) 1. Young recording artist with a somewhat feisty public image 2. Known as “Little Miss Dynamite” 3. Engaging rock ’n’ roll songs: CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 a) “Sweet Nothin’s” (Number Four pop, 1960) b) “Rockin’ around the Christmas Tree” (Number Fourteen pop, 1960) 4. Also recorded many slow, sentimental love songs VII. Songwriters and Producers of Early Rock ’n’ Roll A. The boundaries that separated songwriters and performers began to blur in the early years of rock ’n’ roll’s mainstream success. 1. The roots of rock ’n’ roll lie in R&B and country music. a) Performers often wrote their own songs. b) Songwriters frequently performed and recorded their own works. 2. Of the five early rock ’n’ roll stars we have discussed in detail, only Elvis Presley did not regularly write his own material. 3. The independent songwriter became less important, a major shift brought about by the rock ’n’ roll revolution. 4. The role of the record producers became more important in the later 1950s and the early 1960s. CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 4. The intensity of their vocal style owes much to R&B. 5. Comic effects suggest roots going back to vaudeville routines. a) Low bass voice repeatedly asking, “Why’s everybody always pickin’ on me?” and asking, “Who, me?” in the bridge 6. Form a) Combines aspects of two formal designs: AABA structure and twelve-bar blues b) Mainstream pop roots in its overall AABA structure c) The A sections are twelve-bar blues stanzas, not typical of a Tin Pan Alley tune d) Each A section divides the twelve bars into a verse-chorus structure of the type we have seen in “Long Tall Sally” and “Don’t Be Cruel.” e) The most direct kinship is with “Long Tall Sally”: four bars of verse, followed by eight bars of chorus. f) In both “Charlie Brown” and “Long Tall Sally,” the twelve-bar blues stanzas start off with vocal solos. CHAPTER EIGHT: “ROCK AROUND THE CLOCK”: ROCK ’N’ ROLL, 1954–1959 g) A continuous full accompaniment does not join in until the fifth bar of the structure. 7. The B section, in contrast, is eight bars, providing a harmonic and rhythmic release from the succession of blues structures.