Supreme Court Cases on Constitutionality of Government Acts, Schemes and Mind Maps of Law

Download Supreme Court Cases on Constitutionality of Government Acts and more Schemes and Mind Maps Law in PDF only on Docsity! SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES: 495 490 Syllabus. The judgment is reversed and the cause remanded with instructions that the writ must be sustained and the prisoner discharged. Reversed. A, L. A. SCHECHTER POULTRY CORP. ET AL. V. 'UNITED STATES.* CERTIORARI TO THE CIRCUIT COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE SECOND CIRCUIT. No. 854. Argued May 2, 3, 1935.-Decided May 27, 1935. -1. Extraordinary conditions, such as an'economic crisis, may call for extraordinary remedies, but they can not create or enlarge consti- tutional power. P. 528. 2. Congress is not permitted by the Constituti6n to abdicate, or to transfer to others, the essential legislative functions" with which it is vested. Art, I, § 1; Art. I, § 8, par. 18. Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan, 293 U. S. 388. P. 529. 3. Congress may leave to selected instrumentalities the making of subordinate rules within prescribed limits, and the determination of facts to which the policy, as declared by Congress, is to apply; but it must itself lay down the policies and establish standards. P. 530. 4. The delegation of legislative power sought to be made to the President by § 3 of the National Industrial Recovery Act of June 16, 1933, is unconstitutional (pp. 529 et seq.); and the Act is also unconstitutional, as applied in this case, because it exceeds the power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce and invades the power reserved exclusively to the States (pp. 542 et sq.). 5. Section 3 of the National Industrial Recovery Act provides that "codes of fair competition," which shall be the "standards of- fair competition" for the trades and industries to which they relate, may be approved by the President upon application of repure - sentative associations of the trades or industries to be affected, or may be prescribed by him on his own motion. Their provisions * Together with No. 864, United States v. A. L. 'A. Schechter Poultzy Corp. et al. Certiorari to the Circuit Cdurt of Appeals for the Second Circuit. 496 OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Syllabus. 295 U. S. are to be enforced by injunctions from the federal courts, and "any violation, of any of their provisions in any transaction in or affecting interstate commerce" is to be deemed an unfair method of competition within the meaning of the Federal Trade Commis- sion Act and is to be punished as a crime against the United States. Before approving, the President is to make certain findings as to the character of the association presenting' the code and absence of design to promote monopoly or oppress small enterprises, and must find that it will "tend to effectuate the policy of this title." Codes permitting monopolies or monopolistic practices are forbid- den. The Presidernt may "impose such conditions (including requirements for the making of reports and the keeping of accounts) for ,the protection of consumers, competitors, em- ployees and others, and in the furtherance of the public interest, and may provide such exceptions and exemptions from the pro- visions of such code," as he, in his discretioh, deems necessary "to effectuate the policy herein declared." A code prescribed by him is to have the same effect as one approved on application. Held: (1) The statutory plan is not simply, one of voluntary effort; the "codes of fair competition" are meant to be codes of laws. P. 529. (2) The meaning of the term " fair competition" (not expressly defined in the Act) is clearly not the mere antithesis of "unfair competition," as known to the common law, or of "unfair methods of competition" under the Federal Trade Commission Act. P. 531. (3) In authorizing the President to approve codes which "will tend to effectuate the policy of this title,' § 3 of the Act refers to the Delaration of Policy in § 1. The purposes declared in § 1 are all directed to the rehabilitation of industry and 'the industrial recovery which was the major policy of Congress in adopting the Act. P. 534. (4) That this is the' controlling-purpose of the code now before the Court appears both from its repeated declarations to that effect and from the scope of its requirements. P. 536. (5) The authority sought to be conferred by § 3 was not merely to deal with "unfair competitive practices" which offend against existing law, or to create administrative machinery for the applica- tion of established principles of law to particular instances of vio- lation. Rather, the purpose is clearly disclosed to authorize new and controlling prohibitions through codes of laws which would embrace what the formulators would propose, and what the Presi- SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES. 499 495 Statement of the Case. lation of transactions .involved in that practical continuity of movement, are inapplicable in this case. P. 543. (3) The distinction between intrastate acts that directly affect interstate commerce, and therefore are subject to federal regula- tion, and those that affect it only indirectly, and therefore remain subject to the power of the States exclusively, is clear in principle, though the precise line can be drawn only as individual -cases arise. Pp. 544, 546. (4) If the commerce clause were construed to reach all enter- prises and transactions which could be gaid to have an indirect effect upon interstate commerce, the federal authority would em- brace practipally all the activities of the people, and the authority of the State over its domestic concerns would exist only by suf- ferance of the Federal Government. Indeed, on such a theory, even the development of the State's commercial facilities would be subject to federal control. P. 546. (5) The distinction between direct and indirect effects has long been clearly recognized .in the application of the Anti-Trust Act. It is fundamental and essential to the maintenance of our constitu- tional system. P. 547. (6) The Federal Government can not regulate the wages and hours of labor of persons employed in the internal commerce of a State. No justification for such regulation is to be found in the.- fact that wages and hours affect costs and prices, and so indirectly affect interstate commerce; nor in the-fact that failure of some States to regulate wages and hours diverts commerce from the States that do regulate them. P. 548. (7) The provisions of the code which are alleged to have been violated in this case are not a valid exercise of federal power. P. 550. 76 F. (2d) 617, reversed in part; affirmed in part. CERTioRARI,* on the petition of defendants in a criminal case, to review the judgment below in so far as it affirmed convictions on a number of the counts of an indictment; and, on the petition of the Government, to review the same judgment in so far as it reversed convictions on other counts. Tht indictment charged violations of a "Live Poultry Code," and conspiracy to commit them. See Table of Cases Reported in this volume. OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Argument for Schechter Corp. 295 U. S. Messrs. Joseph Heller and Frederick H. Wood, with whom Mr. Jacob E. Heller was on the, brief, for A. L. A. Schechter Poultry Corp. et al. Congress has set up no intelligible policies to govern the President, no standards to guide and restrict his action, and no procedure for making determinations in conformity with due process of law. When Congress has prescribed (1) a reasonably intel- ligible policy; (2) a reasonably definite standard for administrative action in carrying out that policy, and (3) an administrative procedure complying with the require- ments of due process of law, administrative action in accordance therewith does not involve any unconstitu- tional exercise of legislative power. Such permissible administrative action is of two kinds: (a) when the policy which has been laid down by Con- gress is not to be effective at once or under 'all conditions and circumstances, a determination in accordance with the standard laid down by Congress as to when the con- ditions or circumstances have come into existence which Congress has said shall make the law operative, and (b) the carrying out of the policy of Congress by filling in details or making subordinate rules and regulations in accordance with the standard laid down by Congress. Examples of the first class are Field v. Clark, 143 U. S. 649 and Hampton & Co. v. United States, 276 U. S. 394. Examples of the second class are Buttfield v. Stranahan, 192 U. S. 470; Union Bridge Co. v. United States, 204 U. S. 364; United States v. Shreveport Grain & Elevator Co., 287 U. S. 77; United States v. Grimaud, 220 U. S. 506. The Interstate Commerce Act and the Federal Radio Act provide clear standards for administrative action. Chesapeake & Ohio Ry. Co. v. United States, 283 U. S. 35; Avent v. United States, 266 U. S. 127; New York Cen- tral Securities Corp. v. United States, 287 U. S. 12; Fed- SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES. 501 495 Argument for Schechter Corp. eral Radio Com 'Wn v. Nelson Bros. Co., 289 U. S. 266. Cf. United States v. Chemical Foundation, 272 U. S. 1. There the standards laid down by Congress were far more definite than mere public interest. In each and all of these cases the statute had reference to a particular subject-matter fully described, defined and limited. Furthermore, in nearly if not all of the cases in which this Court has passed upon alleged illegal delegations of legislative power, the legislation was operative either in a field where Congress is not required to accord judicial review (Crowell v. Benson, 285 U. S. 22, 50) or in a field of actual or natural monopoly (railroads and radio broadcasting). In a field of the former character the rights of private property may be seriously affected by governmental action; but no person has the constitutional right to protest against such government acts as are in- volved in tariff-making, the conduct of foreign relations generally, or the operation of government-owned prop- erty; or against those acts necessary to the carrying on of war, such as the seizure of enemy property. In cases- of monopoly the right of government regulation is neces- sarily primary, and private rights subordinate. If, in truth, the vast domain of all private business is open to regulation by Congress in the manner contem- plated in the Recovery Act, then it is surely true that pri- vate citizens directly affected are entitled to have Congress itself lay down the legislative policies with definiteness, declare definite standards which are capable of guiding administrative action and properly restricting it, and to have provision made for quasi-judicial administrative pro- cedure properly conforming to due process of law. Other- wise dictatorship is surely here, for the fact is that the Recovery Act attempts to override and ignore not only the limitations of the commerce clause, but the prohibi- tion against illegal delegation of legislative power and the OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Argument for Schechter Corp. 295 U. S. contained in such a code as the Live Poultry Code, all become criminal offenses. Section 7 requires certain labor provisions to be in- serted in every code which the President approves. The statute can, however, be searched from beginning to end and no clue will be found to the problem ot what other provisions may be inserted. It does not seem that it was intended that the provisions of the codes were to be re- stricted to what was deemed "unfair competition" at com- mon law or to what have been declared "unfair methods of competition" by the courts in construing the Federal Trade Commission Act. The evident intention, was to allow the freest latitude in formulating so-called codes of fair competition in order that the unofficial ideas of pre- ponderant majorities in particular trades and industries, if they happened to coincide or could be made to coincide with the President's idea of- "fair competition," might be enacted into law. This Court has in no uncertain way prescribed the pro- cedure required to make administrative action conform to due process of law. Interstate Commerce Comm'n v. Louisville & N. R. Co., 227 U. S. 88; United States v. Abilene & Southern Ry. Co., 265 U. S. 274; Crowell v. Benson, 285 U. S. 22; Wichita R. & L. Co. v. Public Utilities Comm'n, 260 U. S. 48, 59; Southern Ry. Co. v. Virginia, 290 U. S. 190. The President has made no findings' of fact to bring his action in approving the code within any policy or stand- ard which the Act may contain. Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan, 293 U. S. 388. See also Florida v. United States, 282 U. S. 194, 215; United States v. Baltimore & Ohio R. Co., 293 U. S. 454; United States v. Chicago, M. & St. P. R. Co., 294 U. S. 50. Furthermore, there are obviously no administrative findings of any kind whatsoever which relate the pro- visions of the Live Poultry Code to any of the alleged 504 SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES. 495 Argument for Schechter Corp. policies set forth in § 1 of the Recovery Act. In none of the administrative documents referred to is there any statement that such findings as may have been made were made upon the basis of the "evidence" introduced at the public hearing. If § 1 were the only guide, there is no action conceiv- able which the President could not take with respect to, the regulation of industry and have it fit into one or more of the pigeon-holes provided in § 1. The alleged standards of § 1 do not in any way make more definite or limit the wholly unlimited authorization in § 7 for "maximum hours of labor" and "minimum rates of pay." Certainly no decision of this Court, or of any other so far as we are aware, has ever held that hours-of labor or rates of pay to workmen have any relation to the well- known concepts of "unfair competition" or "unfair methods of competition." See Howe Scale Co. v. Wyckoff, 198 U. S. 118; Hanover Co. v. Metcalf, 240 U. S. 403, 412; Federal Trade Comm'n v. Gratz, 253 U. S. 421, 427-8. The Recovery Act authorizes the President to re-dele- gate the almost illimitable powers conferred on him by the Act to various commissions, bureaus, officers, and other agencies. The result is that these various bodies and functionaries have the power to make the laws of the United States. It is common knowledge that it is impos- sible for an ordinary citizen to know what these laws are, not only because of their tremendous volume, but also because they are constantly shifting and changing, and because nowhere can be found a comprehensive collection of the thousand and one enactments which are almost daily ground out by these agencies and which in many cases are unintelligible and inconsistent. See Report of the Special Committee of Administrative Law, 57th Annual Meeting of the American Bar Assn., pp. 215-216. The scope of the Recovery Act is evidenced by the codes enacted thereunder. 505 OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Argument for Schechter Corp. 295 U. S. In no less than 17 cases, the Recovery Act or its appli- cation has been declared unconstitutional during the past two years by United States District Courts from Florida to Idaho. Purvis v. Bazemore, 5 F. Supp. 230; United States v. Suburban Motor Service Corp., 5 F. Supp...798; Unlted 'States v. Lieto, 6 F. Supp. 32- United States v. Smith, District C6urt, Eastern. District of Texas, Feb. 26, 1934; Hart Coal Corp. v. Sparks, 7 F. Supp. 16; United States v. Mills, 7 F. Supp. 547; 'United States v. Gearhart, 7 F. Supp. 712; United States v. Eason Oil Co., 8 F. Supp. 365; United States v. Belcher, 104 C. C. H., par. 7247; United States v. Kinnebrew Motor Co., 8 F. Supp. 535; United Statds'v. George, 104 C. C.' H., par. 7298; Table Supply Stores v. Hawking, 9 F. Supp. 888; United States v. Superior Products Co., 9 F. Supp. 943- United States v. Weirton Steel Co., 10 F. Supp. 55; United States v.- National Garment Co., "10 F. Supp. 104; The Acme, Inc. v. Besson,- 10 F. Supp. 1. The briefest reflection convinces that if the theory is once accepted that the Constitution confers a power of undetermined extent to regulate anything and every- thing which "affects" interstate commerce, and that the question of what does affect it is to be determined as a matter of economic fact in each particular case, then the Constitution has been amended by statute into a document which would never have been adopted or rati- fied originally, and-what is more serious- the whole theory upon which our system of government is founded and upon which it has been maintained is gone. Under the construction of the commerce clause now advanced by the Government, the United States loses its character as " a government of laws, and not of men," and the doctrine of enumerated powers is gone. Acceptance of the Government's view as to the extent of thQ commerce clause is inconsistent with the mainte- nance of our dual svst-m of aovernment. -506 SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES. 509 495 Argument for the United States. competition with wholesome grades biings down the price structure for all grades, the effect being disproportionate to the relative amount of unfit poultry sold. A principal reason is the resulting distrust on the part of the con- sumers, who are generally unable to distinguish good from unfit poultry before it is dressed. It is estimated that if unfit poultry could be excluded from the market by effec- tively prohibiting its sale in New York, there would be an increase of about 20 per cent. in the consumption and shipment of live poultry. Failure to inspect, and sales to unlicensed dealers, pro- duce the same consequences as does sale of unfit poultry, since these practices facilitate such sale. Selective kill- ing, i. e., selling, likewise demoralizes the price structure by depressing the price for good poultry rejected from coops by the earliest purchasers at the slaughterhouse. The practice of selective killing or selling has also tended to prevent the development -of grading before. shipment on the basis of quality,, and so has prevented an accurate price basis for poultry as sold by farmers or other shippers. The payment of unduly low wages, and the exaction of a long working week, contribute in the same way to the adverse effects on the price structure, and the quality and volume of live poultry shipped into New York. Because of the unusually sharp competition in this industry, and the close margin on which slaughterhouse operators work, any saving in wage costs is translated into a reduction in price. The effect is to lower the price, to induce the sale of unfit and inferior grades of poultry by competitors, and so tp cause a diversion of trade and shipments from live to dressed poultry, and to induce a progressive break- down of the live-poultry market. The court below apparently proceeded on an a prioi and erroneous distinction between the labor and other practices prohibited, with respect to their effect on inter- 510 OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Argument for the United States. 295 U. S. state commerce. Although the question was treated as one of degree, the majority of the court did not suggest that there was no evidence to support the finding of the jury that violation of the labor provisions produced the same consequences as violation of the other provisions in question. Under the decisions of this Court, the Code provisions which the petitioners violated are within the commerce power of the Congress. Local No. 167 v. United States, 291 U. S. 293, indicates that, under the facts of this in- dustfy, the practices of the wholesale slaughterhouses are so closely related to the preceding interstate movement that, from the standpoint of federal regulation, whether under the Sherman Act or otherwise, it makes no differ- ence what parts of their business are "in" interstate com- merce, and what parts, if any, are on the fringe of such commerce but necessary to its proper functioning. Ir- respective of the extent to which the slaughterhouse oper- ators are engaged "in" interstate commerce, their prac- tices are subject to federal regulation. The effect of those practices on the national price and on the interstate move- ment of poultry is no less than the effect of' the local activities in a dominant market regulated under the Grain Futures Act, or the Packers and Stockyards Act, or the Sherman Act. Board of Trade v. Olsen, 262 U. S. 1; Stafford v. Wallace, 258 U. S. 495; United States v. Patten, 226 U. S. 525. Moreover, the effect of the practices on the quality of the goods shipped and on the trustworthi- ness of goods in interstate commerce affords an additional basis for federal regulation. Thornton v. United States, 271 U. S. 414; United States v. Ferger, 250 U. S. 199. Citing and discussing: United States v. Delaware & Hudson Co., 213 U. S. 366; Coronado Coal Co. v. United .Mine Workers, 268 U. S. 295; Federal Trade Comm'n v. Western Meat Co., 272 U: S. 554; Northern Securities Co. SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES. 511 495 Argument for the United States. v. United States, 193 U. S. 197; Federal Trade Comm'n v. Royal Milling Co., 288 U. S. 212; Federal Trade Comm'n v. Algoma Lumber Co., 291 U. S. 67; Swift & Co. v. United States, 196 U. S. 375; Tagg Bros: & Moor- head y. United States, 280 U. S. 420; American Column & Lumber Co. v. United States, 257 U. S. 377; United States v. Trenton Potteries Co., 273 U. S. 392; Colorado v. United States, 271 U. S. 153; Florida v. United States, 292 U. S. 1; Federal Trade Comm'n v. Keppel & Bro., 291 U. S. 304; Houston, E. & W. T. R. Co. v. United States, 234 U. S. 342; Railroad Comm'n v. Chicago, B. & Q. R. Co., 257 U. S. 563. Cases which hold that a state tax upon or regulation of manufacture or production does not burden interstate coinmerce because manufacture and production are not interstate commerce, do not fix the permissible limits of the commerce power of Congress. See Kidd v. Pearson, 128 U. S. 1; Heisler v. Thomas Colliery Co., 260 U. S. 245; Utah Power & Light Co. v. Pfpst, 286 U. S. 165. Distinguished: United Mine Workers v. Coronado Coal Co., 259 U. S. 344; United Leather Workers v. Herkert & Meisel Co., 265 U. S. 457. Petitioners are importers of poultry from other States and Congress "may regulate their handling and sale of such poultry. Leisy v. Hardin, 135 U. S. 100, 110, 111; See also Heymann v. Southern Ry. Co., 203 U. S: 270; Rosenberger v. Pacific Express Co., 241 U. S. 48; Baldwi v. Seelig, Inc., 294 U. S. 511; Greater New York Live. Poultry Chamber of Commerce v. United States, 47 F. (2d) 156; Swift & Co. v. United States, 196 U. S. 375, 398-399; Stafford v. Wallace, 258 U. S. 495; Tagg Bros. & Moorhead v. United States, 280 U. S. 420. The intermediate delivery of the poultry to the receiv- ers at the railroad terminals does not break the interstate character of the movement from shippers in other States OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Argument for the United' States. 295 U. S. The contention is not that Congress may control any form of activity which may conceivably to some degree affect interstate commerce, or that an economic crisis confers such power. The contention rests upon the facts. The depressed state of the national economy made it evident that interstate commerce was demoralized and endangered by acts which under other conditions might not seriously affect it. Because of this effect and this danger, Congress could bring those acts within its regu- latory power under the commerce clause. Wilson v. New, 243 U. S. 332, 348. This is but an application-to an un- usually exigent situation of the now faniiliar principle that the facts which call forth legislative measures may be determinative of the validity of an exercise f legis- lative power. Stafford v. Wallace, 258 U. S. 495, 613; Nashville, C. & St. L. Ry. Co. v. Walters, 294 U. S 405. An additional basis on which the wage and hour provi- sions rest is that they are reasonable means for the pre- vention of labor disputes arising out of those subjects, and so are adapted to protecting interstate commerce, from the burdens caused by labor disturbances. Cf. In re Debs, 158 U. S. 564; Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deer- ing, 254 U. S. 443; American Steel Foundries v. Tri-City Central Trades Council, 257 U. S. 184; Coronado Coal Co. v. United Mine Workers, 268 U. S. 295; Bedford Cut Stone Co. v. Stone Cutters Assn., 274 U. S. 37; Pennsyl- vania R. Co. v. Railroad Labor Board, 261 U. S. 72, 79; Texas & New Orleans R. Co. v. Brotherhood of Clerks, 281 U. S. 548, 565. The power to take preventive meas- ures is as available as the power to provide remedies. See Stafford v. Wallace, 258 U. S. 495, 520; Texas & New Orleans R. Co. v. Brotherhood of Clerks, 281 U. S. 548. The Recovery Act and the provisions of the Code fully satisfy the requirements of the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment. No effort wa made by the petition- 514 SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES. 515 495 Argument for the United States. ers to sustain the burden of demonstrating that the Re- covery Act is arbitrary, capricious, or unreasonable in its provisions. The provisions of the Code are shown to bear a substantial relation to the regulation of interstate com- merce. Moreover, the restrictions imposed by the Code embody the judgment of a substantial portion of the in- dustry as to what is both necessary and reasonable. The procedure followed in the adoption of the Code fully satisfies the requirements of the Act and of due process of law. In Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan, 293 U. S. 388, this Court did not pass upon the validity of § 3 (a) of the Recovery Act, but indicated that it presented a different problem of delegation from that raised by § 9 (c). Section 3 (a) of the-Recovery Act authorized the Presi- dent to approve codes of "fair competition" after making certain prescribed findings. The words "fair competi- tion ". set the. primary standard for presidential action. Fair competition-or the antithetical expression "unfair methods of competition'"--has been used in the Federal Trade Commission Act and in the Tariff Act of 1922 as a basis for administrative and judicial action. Federal Trade Comm'n v. Keppel & Bro., 291 U. S. 304; Frischer & Co. v. Elting, 60 F. (2d) 711, cert. den., 287 U. S. 649. Under the' Recovery Act the President ig to be guided in approving rules of fair competition by the codes sub- mitted by representative groups in the industries affected. There is authority for such a resort to business experience and, judgment. St. Louis & Iron Mountain Ry. Co. v. Taylor, 210 U. S. 281, 286-287; Butte City Water Co. v. Baker, 196 U: S. 119, 126-127; Erhardt$ v. Boaro, 113 U. S. 527. -It is not, of course, material that the rules of fair competition submitted by industry and approved by the President may be broader in scope than the" ,unfair OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Argument for the United States. 295 U. S. methods of competition" condemned by this Court under ihe Federal Trade Commission Act. The purpose of Con- gress in the Recovery Act clearly included the prohibition of practices regarded by industry as unfair because of their tendency to dstroy the price structure without eco- nomic justification. Moreover, the codes were clearly intended to prohibit the practice now considered the most harmful and unfair of all methods of competition-the exploitation of employees through the cutting of wages and lengthening of hours of labor. See §§ 1, 4 (b), and 7. In determining whether a delegation of authority to the Executive is a valid one, the question is not whether the primary standard has the same meaning as in a prior statute, but whether there is an adequate policy or stand- ard prescribed for the Executive. The standard in the Recovery Act would seem more definite than that in the Federal Trade Commission Act. Fair competition is given further meaning and sub- stance by the requirement in § 3 (a) that the codes will tend to effectuate the policy set forth in § 1 of the Act. All of the policies there set forth point toward a single goal-the rehabilitation of industry and the industrial recovery which unquestionably was the major policy of Congress in adopting the National Industrial Recovery Act. The requirement that the President find that codes of fair competition will tend to effectuate the policy there laid down both (1) sets a limit upon his power to ap- prove codes and (2) gives additional substance and mean- ing to the phrase "fair competition" by serving as a guide- post to what the codes of fair competition contemplated by the Act were to include. In many cases this Court has upheld standards no more specific than "unfair competition," when giveA content and meaning by other sections or by the general-purpose of the statute in which they were used, e. g., New York SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES. 519 495 Opinion of the Court. Section 3 (a) of the Recovery Act requires the President to make certain findings of fact as a condition of his ap- proval of codes. In approving the live poultry code, the President made the findings required. The phrase "in or affecting interstate commerce" does not render § 3 (f) invalid for indefiniteness, since these words have been given meaning by judicial decision and, if any uncertainty as to their meaning exists, it arises from the nature of the constitutional limitations upon federal power. Such language, commonly used, as for example in the Sherman Act, has never been deemed to render a statute invalid for indefiniteness. [The several remaining specifications of error wer- also argued briefly.] MR. CHIEF JUSTICE HUGIHES delivered the opinion of the Court. Petitioners in No. 854 were convicted in the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of New York on eighteen counts of an indictment charging violations of what is known as the "Live Poultry Code,"' and on an additional count for conspiracy to commit such violations.2 By demurrer to the indictment and appro- priate motions on the trial, the defendants contended (1) that the Code had been adopted pursuant to an uncon- stitutional delegation by Congress of legislative power; (2) that it attempted to regulate intrastate transactions which lay outside the authority of Congress; and (3) that in certain provisions it was repugna.nt to the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment. 'The full title of the Code is "Code of Fair Competition for the Live Poultry Industry of the Metropolitan Area in and about the City of New York." The indictment contained 60 counts, of which 27 counts were dis- missed by the trial court, and on 14 counts the defendants were acquitted.- OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Opinion of the Court. 295 U. S. The Circuit Court of Appeals sustained the conviction on the conspiracy count and on sixteen counts for viola- tion of the Code, but reversed the conviction on two counts which charged violation of requirements as to minimum wages and maximum hours of labor, as these were not deemed to be within the congressional power of regulation. On the respective applications of the defend- ants (No. 854) and of the Government (No. 864) this Court granted writs of certiorari, April 15, 1935. New York City is the largest live-poultry market in the United States. Ninety-six per cent. of the live poul- try there marketed comes from other States. Three- fourths of this amount arrives by rail and is consigned to commission men or receivers. Most of these freight shipments (about 75 per cent.) come in at the Manhattan Terminal of the New York Central Railroad, and the remainder at one of the four terminals in New Jersey serving New York City. The commission men transact by far the greater part of the business on a commission basis, representing the shippers as agents, and remitting to them the proceeds of sale, less commissions, freight and handling charges. Otherwise, they buy for their own account. They sell to slaughterhouse operators who are also called market-men. The defendants are slaughterhouse operators of the lat- ter class. A. L. A. Schechter Poultry Corporation and Schechter Live Poultry Market are corporations conduct- ing wholesale poultry slaughterhouse markets in Brook- lyn, New York City. Joseph Schechter operated the lat- ter corporation and also guaranteed the credits of the former corporation which was operated by Martin, Alex and Aaron Schechter. Defendants ordinarily purchase their live poultry from commission men at the West Washington Market in New York City or at the railroad terminals serving the City, but occasionally they purchase from commission men in Philadelphia. They buy the SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES. 521 495 Opinion of the Court. poultry for slaughter and resale. After the poultry is trucked to their slaughterhouse markets in Brooklyn, it is there sold, usually within twenty-four hours, to retail poultry dealers and butchers who sell directly to consum- ers. The poultry purchased from defendants is immedi- ately slaughtered, prior to delivery, by shochtim in defend- ants' employ. Defendants do not sell poultry in interstate commerce. The "Live Poultry Code" was promulgated under § 3 of the National Industrial Recovery Act.3 That section- the pertinent provisions of which are set forth in the margin -- authorizes the President to approve "codes of 'Act of June 16, 1933, c. 90, 48 Stat. 195i 196; 15 U. S. C. 703. "' CDEs or FAIR ComrPEITION. "Sec. 3. (a) Upon the application to the President by one or more trade or industrial associations or groups, the President may approve a code or codes of fair competition for the trade or indus- try or subdivision thereof, represented by the applicant or appli- cants, if the President finds (1) that such associations or groups impose no inequitable restrictions on admission to membership therein and are truly representative of such trades or industries or subdivisions thereof, and (2) that such code or codes are not designed to promote monopolies or to eliminate or oppress small enterprises and will n6t operate to discriminate against them, and will tend to effectuate the policy of this title: Provided, That such code or codes shall not permit monopolies or monopolistic practices: Provided further, That where such code or codes affect the services and wel- fare of persons engaged in other steps of the economic process, nothing in this section shall deprive such persons of the right to be heard prior to approval by the President of such code or codes. The President may, as a condition of his approval of any such. code, impose such conditions (including requirements for the making of reports and the keeping of accounts) for the protection of con- sumers, competitors, employees, and others, and in furtherance of the public interest, and may provide such exceptions to and exemp- tions from the provisions of such code, as the President in his discre- tion deems necessary to effectuate the policy herein declared. "(b) After the President shall have approved any such code, the provisions of such code shall be the standards of fair competition for OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Opinion of the Court. 295 U. S. sale, transporting, or handling and/or slaughtering live poultry, from the time such poultry comes into the New York metropolitan area to the time it is first sold in slaughtered form," and such "related branches" as may from time to time be included by amendment. Em- ployers are styled "members of the industry," and the term employee is defined to embrace "any and all per- sons engaged in the industry, however compensated," ex- cept "members." The Code fixes the number of hours for work-days. It provides that no employee, with certain exceptions, shall be permitted to work in excess of forty (40) hours in any one week, and that no employee, save as stated, "shall be paid in any pay period less than at the rate of fifty (50) cents per hour." The article containing "general labor provisions" prohibits the employment of any per- son under sixteen years of age, and declares that employees shall have the right of "collective bargaining," and freedom of choice with respect to labor organizations, in the terms of § 7 (a) of the Act. The minimum number of employees, who shall be employed by slaughterhouse operators, is fixed, the number being graduated according to the average volume of weekly sales. Provision ig made for administration through an "in- dustry advisory committee," to be selected by trade asso- ciations and members of the industry, and a "code super- visor" to be appointed, with the approval of the commit- tee, by agreement between the Secretary of Agriculture and the Administrator for Industrial Recovery. The expenses of administration are to be borne by the members of the industry proportionately upon the basis of volume of busi- ness, or such other factors as the advisory committee may deem equitable, "subject to the disapproval of the Secre- tary and/or Administrator." The seventh article, containing "trade practice provi- sions," prohibits various practices which are said to consti- SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES. 525 495 Opinion of the Court. tute "unfair methods of competition." The final article provides for verified reports, such as the Secretary or Administrator may require, "(1) for the protection of con- sumers, competitors, employees, and others, and in furtherance of the public interest, and (2) for the deter- mination by the Secretary or Administrator of the extent to which the declared policy of the act is being effectuated by this code." The members of the industry are also required to keep books and records which "will clearly reflect all financial transactions of their respective busi- nesses and the financial condition thereof," and to submit weekly reports showing the range of daily prices and vol- ume of sales" for each kind of produce. The President approved the Code by an executive order in which he found that the application for his approval had been duly made in accordance with the provisions of Title I of the National Industrial Recovery Act, that there had been due notice and hearings, that the Code constituted "a, code of fair competition" as contemplated by the Act and complied with its pertinent provisions in- cluding clauses (1) and (2) of subsection (a) of § 3 of Title I; and that the Code would tend "to effectuate the policy of Congress as declared in section 1 of Title I."' 'The Executive Order is as follows: "ExEcuTvE ORDER. "Approval of Code of Fair Competition for the' Live Poultiy Industry of the Metropolitan Area in and about the City of New York. "Whereas, the Secretary of Agriculture and the Administrator of the National.Industrial Recovery Act having rendered their separate reports and recommendations and findings on the provisions of said code, coming within their respective jurisdictions, as set forth in the Executive Order No. 6182 of June 26, 1933, as supplemented by. Executive Order No. 6207 of July 21, 1933, and Executive Order No. 6345 of October 20, 1933, as amended by Executive Order No. 6551 of January 8, 1934; 526 OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Opinion of the Court. 295 U. S. The executive order also recited that the Secretary of Ag- riculture and 'the Administrator of the National Indus- trial Recovery Act had rendered separate reports as to the provisions within their respective jurisdictions. The Sec- retary of Agriculture repbrted that the provisions of the Code "establishing standards of fair competition (a) are regulations of transactions in 'or affecting the current of interstate and/or foreign commerce and (b) are reason- "Now, therefore, I, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President of the Unitect States, pursuant to the authority vested in me by title I of the National Industrial Recovery Act, approved June 16, 1933, and otherwise, do hereby find that: 1. An application has been duly made, pursuant to and in full compliance with the provisions of title I of the National Industrial Recovery Act, approved June 16, 1933, for my approval of a code of fair competition for the live poultry industry in the metropolitan area in and about the City of New York; and "2. Due notice and opportunity bor hearings to interested parties have been given pursuant to the provisions of the act and regula- tions thereunder; and, "3. Hearings have been held upon said code, pursuant to such notice and pursuant to the pertinent provisions of the act and regu- lations thereunder; and "4. Said code of fair competition constitutes a code of- fair com- petition, as contemplated by the act and complies in all- respects with the pertinent provisions of the act, including clauses (1) and (2) of subsection (a) of section 3 of title I of the act; and "5. It appears, after-due consideration, that said code of fair com- petition will tend to effectuate the policy of Congress as declared in section 1 of title I of the act. 'Now, therefore, I, Franldin D. Roosevelt, President of the United States, pursuant to the authority vested in me by title I of the National Industrial Recovery Act, approved June 16, 1933, and otherwise, do hereby approve said Code of Fair Competition for the Live Poultry Industry in the Metropolitan Area in and about the City of New York. "FRAx N N D. RoosEnLT, "The White House, "President of the United States' April 13, 1934.' SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES. 529 495 Opinion of the Court. imposed limits because they believe that more or different power is necessary., Such assertions of extra-constitu-. tional authority were antj~ipated and precluded by the explicit terms of the Tenth Amendment,-" The powers not delegated to the United, States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the Stateg, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people." The further point is urged that the national crisis de- manded a broad and intensive coeperative effort by those engaged in trade and industry, and that this necessary coperation was sought to be fostered by permitting them to initiate the adoption of codes. But the statutory plan is not simply one for voluntary effort. It does not seek merely to endow voluntary trade or industrial associations or groups with privileges or immunities. It involves the coercive exercise of the law-making power. The codes of fair competition which the statute attempts to authorize are codes of laws. If valid, they place all persons within their reach under the obligation of positive law, binding equally those who assent and those who do not assent. Violations of the provisions of the codes are punishable as crimes. Second. The question of the delegation of legislative power. We recently had occasion to review the pertinent decisions and the general principles which govern the de- termination of this question. Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan, 293 U. S. 388. The Constitution provides that "All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." Art I, § 1. And the Congress is authorized "To make all laws which shall-be necessary and proper for carrying into execution " its general powers. Art. I, § 8, par. 18. The Congress is not permitted to abdicate or to transfer to others the essential legislative functions with which it is ihus vested. We have repeatedly recognized the necessity of .adapting OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Opinion qf the Court. 295 U. S. legislation to complex conditions involving a host of de- tail& with which the national legislature cannot deal di-- rectly. We pointed out in the Panama Company case that the Constitution has never been regarded as denying to Congress the necessary resources of flexibility and practicality, which will enable it to perform its function in laying down policies and establishing standards, while leaving to selected instrumentalities the making of sub- ordinate rules within prescribed limits and the determi- nation of facts to which the policy as declared by the legis- lature is to apply. But we said that the constant recog- nition of the necessity and validity of such provisions, and the wide range of administrative authority which has been developed, by means of them, cannot be allowed to obscure the limitations of the authority to dele- gate, if our constitutional system is to be maintained. Id., p. 421. Accordingly, we look to the statute to see whether Con- gress has overstepped these limitations,--whether Con- gress in authorizing "codes of fair competition" has it- self established the standards of legal obligation, thus performing its essential legislative function, or, by the failure to enact such standards, has attempted to transfer that function to others The aspect in which the question is now presented is distinct from that which was before us in the case of the Panama Company. There, the subject of the statutory prohibition was defined. National Industrial Recovery Act, § 9 (c). Thatsubjbct was the transportation in inter- state and foreign commerce of petroleum and petroleum products which are produced or withdrawn from storage in excess of the amount permitted by state authority. The question was with respect to the range of discretion given to the President in prohibiting that transportation. Id., pp. 414, 415, 430. As to the "codes of fair compe- tition," under § 3 of the Act, the question'is more fupda- 530 SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITD STATES. 531 495 Opinion of the Court. mental. It is whether there is any adequate definition of the subject to which the codes are to be addressed. What is meant by "fair competition" as the term is used in the Act? Does it refer to a category established in the law, and is the authority to make codes limited accordingly? Or is it used as a convenient designation for whatever set of laws the formulators of a code for a par- ticular trade or industry may propose and the President may- approve (subject to certain restrictions), or the President may himself prescribe, as being wise and benefi- cent provisions for the government of the trade or industry in order to -accomplish the broad purposes of rehabilitation, correction and expansion which are stated in the first section of Title I? 9 The Act- does not define "fair 'competition." "Unfair competition," as known to the common law, is a limited concept. Primarily, and strictly, it relates to the palming off of one's goods as those of a rival trader: Goodyear Manufacturing Co. v. Goodyear Rubber'Co., 128 U. S. 598, ' That. section, under the heading "Declaration of Policy," is' as follows: "Section 1. A national emergenay productive of widespread unemployment and disorganization of industry, which burdens inter- state and foreign commerce, affects the public welfare, and under- mines the standards of living of the American people, is hereby declared to exist. It is hereby declared to be the policy of Congress to remove obstructions to the free flow of interstate and foreign com- merce which tend to diminish the amount thereof; and to provide for the general welfare by promoting the organization of industry for the purpose of cooperative action among trade groups, to induce and maintain united action of labor and management under adequate governmental sanctions and supervision, to eliminate unfair competi- tive practices, to promote the fullest possible utilization of the present productive capacity of industries, to avoid undue restriction of pro- duction (except as may be temporarily required), to increase the consumption of industrial and agricultural products by increasin purchasing power, to reduce and relieve unemployment, to improve standards of labor, and otherwise to rehabilitate industry and to con- serve natural resourceB," OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Opinion of the Court. 295 U. S. matter. We cannot regard the "fair competition" of the codes as antithetical to the "unfair methods of com- petition" of the Federal Trade Commission Act. The "fair competition of the codes has a much broader range and a new significance. The Recovery Act provides that it shall not be construed to impair the powers of the Federal Trade Commission, but, when a code is approved, its provisions are to be the " standards of fair competition" for the trade or industry concerned, and any violation of such standards in any transaction in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce is to be deemed "an unfair method of competition" within the meaning of the Federal Trade Commission Act. § 3 (b). For a statement of the authorized objectives and con- tent of the "codes of fair competition" we are referred repeatedly to the "Declaration of Policy" in section one of Title I of the Recovery Act. Thus, the approval of a code by the President is conditioned on his finding that it " will tend to effectuate the policy of this titie." § 3 (a). The President is authorized to impose such conditions "for the protection of consumers, competitors, employees, and others, and in furtherance of the public interest, and may provide such exceptions to and exemp- tions from the provisions of such code as the President in his discretion deems necessary to effectuate the policy herein declared." Id. The "policy herein declared" is manifestly that set forth in section one. That declara- tion embraces a broad range of objectives. Among them we find the elimination of "unfair competitive practices." But even if this clause were to be taken to relate to prac- ticps which fall under the ban of existing law, either com- mon law or statute, it is still only one of the authorized aims described in section one. It is there declared to be "the policy of Congress '- "to remove obstructions to the free flow of interstate and foreign commerce which tend to diminish the amount SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES. 535 495 Opinion of the Court. thereof; and to provide for the general welfare by pro moting the organization of industry for the purpose of co~perative action among trade groups, to induce and maintain united action -of -labor and management under adequate governmental sanctions and supervision, to elimi- nate unfair competitive practices, to promote the full- est possible utilization of the present productive capacity of industries, to avoid undue restriction of production (except as may be temporarily required), to increase the consumption of industrial and agricultural products by increasing purchasing power, to reduce and relieVe unem- ployment, to improve standards of labor; and otherwise to rehabilitate industry and to conserve natural resources." " Under- § 3, whatever "may tend to effectuate" these general purposes may be included in the "codes of fair competition." We think the conclusion is inescapable that the authority sought to be conferred by § 3 was not merely to deal with "unfair competitive practices" which offend against existing law,. and could be the subject of judicial condemnation without further legislation, or ,to create administrative machinery for the application of established principles of law to particular instances of violation. -Rather, the purpose is clearly disclosed to au- thorize new and controlling prohibitions through codes of laws which would embrace what the formulators would. propose, and what the President would approve, or pre- scribe, as wise and beneficient measures for the govern- ment of trades and industries in order to bring about their rehabilitation, correction and development, according to the general declaration of policy in section one. Codes of laws of this sort are styled "codes of fair competition." W6 find no real controversy upon this point and we must determine the validity of the Code in question in this aspect. As the Government candidly says in its " See Note 9. 536 OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Opinion of the Court. 295 U. S. brief: "The words 'policy of this title' clearly refer to the 'policy' which Congress declared in the section en- titled 'Declaration of Policy '-§ 1. All of the policies there set forth point toward a single goal-the rehabilita- tion of industry and the industrial recovery which un- questionably was the major policy of Congress in adopt- ing the National Industrial Recovery Act." And that this is the controlling purpose of the Code now before us appears both from its repeated declarations to that effect and from the scope of its requirements. It will be ob- served that its provisions as to the hours and wages of employees and its " general labor provisions '? were placed in separate articles, and these were not included in the article on "trade practice provisions" declaring what should be deemed to constitute "unfair methods of com- petition." The Secretary of Agriculture thus stated the objectives of the Live Poultry Code in his report to the President, which was recited in the executive order of ap- proval: "That said code will tend to effectuate the declared policy of title I of the National Industrial Recovery Act -as et forth in section 1 of said act in -that the terms and provisions of such code tend to: (a) Remove obstructions to the free flow of interstate and foreign commerce which tend to diminish the amount thereof; (b) to provide for the general welfare by promoting the organization of in- 4dustry for the purpose of coSperative action among trade ,'groups; (c) to eliminate unfair competitive practices; (d) to promote the fullest possible utilization of the present productive capacity of industries; (e) to avoid undue re- striction of production (except as may be temporarily re- quired); (f) to increase the consumption of industrial and agricultural products by increasing purchasing power; and (g) otherwise to rehabilitate industry and to con- serve natural resources." SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES. 539 495 Opinion of the Court. or taking from what is proposed, as "in his discretion" .he thinks necessary "to effectuate the policy" declared by the Act. Of course, he has no less liberty when he prescribes a code on his own motion or on complaint, and he is free to prescribe one if a code has not been approved. The Act provides for the creation by the President of administrative agencies to assist him, but the action or relorts of such agencies, or of his other assistants,--their recommendations and findings in relation to the making of codes-have no sanction beyond the ,wil of the Presi- dent, who may accept, modify or reject them as he pleases. Such recommendations or findings in no way limit the authority, which § 3 undertakes to vest in the President with no other conditions than those there specified. And this authority relates to a host of different trades and in- dustries, thus extending the President's discretion to all the varieties of laws which he may deem to be beneficial in dealing with the vast array of commercial and indus- trial activities throughout the country. Such a sweeping delegation of legislative power tincs no support in the decisions upon which the Government especially relies. By the Interstate Commerce Act, Con- gress has itself provided a code of laws regulating the * activities of the common carriers subject to the Act, in order to assure the performance of their services upon just and reasonable terms, with adequate facilities and with- out unjust discrimination. Congress from time to time has elaborated its requirements, as needs have been dis- closed. To facilitate the application of the standards prescribed by the Act, Congress his provided an expert body. That administrative agency, in dealing with par- ticular cases, is required to act upon notice and hearing, and its orders must be supported by findings of fact which in turn are sustained by evidence. Interstate Com- merce Comm'n v. Louisville & Nashville R. Co., 227"U. S. 88; Florida v. United States, 282. U. S. 194; United States OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Opinion of the Court. 295 U. S. v. Baltimore & Ohio R. Co., 293 U. S. 454. When the Commission is authorized to issue, for the construction, extension or abandonment of lines, a certificate of "pub- lic convenience and necessity," or to permit the acquisi- tion by one carrier ot the control of another, if that is found to be "in the public interest," we have pointed out that these provisions are not left without standards to guide determination. The authority conferred has direct relation to the standards prescribed for the service of common carriers and can be exercised only upon findings, based upon evidence, with respect to particular conditions of transportation. New York Central Securities Co v. United States, 287 U. S. 12, 24, 25; Texas & Pacific Rail- way Co. v. Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe Ry. Co., 270 U. S. 266, 273; Chesapeake & Ohio Ry. Co. v. United States, 283 U. S. 35, 42. Similarly, we have held that the Radio Act of 1927 established standards to govern radio communications and, in view of the limited number of available broadcast- ing frequencies, Congress authorized allocation ana licenses. The Federal Radio Commission was created as the licensing authority, in order to secure a reasonable equality of opportunity in radio transmission and recep- tion. The authority of the Commission to grant licenses "as public convenience, interest or necessity requires" was limited by the nature of radio communications, and by the scope, character and quality of the services to be rendered and the relative advantages to be derived through distribution of facilities. These standards estab- lished by Congress were to be enforced upon hearing, and evidence, by an administrative body acting under statu- tory restrictions adapted to the particular activity. Federal Radio Comm'n v. Nelson Brothers Co.. 289 U. S. 266. " Act of February 23, 1927, c. 169, 44 Stat. 1162, as amended by the Act of March 28, 1928, c. 263, 45 Stat. 373. SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES. 541 495 Opinion of the Court. In Hampton & Co. v. United States, 276 U. S. 394, the question related to the "flexible tariff provision" of the Tariff Act of 1922.' We held that Congress had described its plan "to secure by law the imposition of customs duties on articles of imported merchandise which should equal the difference between the cost of producing in a foreign country the articles in question and laying them down for sale in the United States, and the cost of pro- ducing and selling like or similar articles in the United States." As the differences in cost might vary from time to time, provision was made for the investigation and determination of these differences by the executive branch so as to make "the adjustments necessary to conform the duties to the standard underlying that policy and plan." Id., pp. 404, 405. The Court found the same principle to be applicable in fixing customs duties as that which per- mitted Congressto exercise its rate-making power in interstate commerce, "by declaring the rule which shall prevail in the legislative fixing of rates" and then re- mitting "the fixing of such rates" in accordance with its provisions "to a rate-making body." Id., p. 409. The Court fully recognized the limitations upon the delegation of legislative power. Id., pp. 408-411. To summarize and conclude upon this point: Section 3 of the Recovery Act is without precedent. It supplies no standards for any trade, industry or activity. It does.not undertake to prescribe rules of conduct to be applied to particular states of fact determined by appropriate admin- istrative procedure. Instead of prescribing rules of con- duct, it authorizes the making of codes to prescribe them. For that legislative undertaking, § 3 sets up no standards, aside from the statement of the general aims of rehabili- tation, correction and expansion described in section one. In view of the scope of that broad declaration, and of the "Act of September 21, 1922,, c. 356, Title JII, § 315, 42 Stat. 858, 941. OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Opinion of the Court. 295 U. S. cago Board of Trade v. Olsen, 262 U. S. 1, 35; Tagg Bros. & Moorhead v. United States, 280 U. S. 420, 439. (2) Did the defendants' trabsactions directly "affect" interstate commerce so as to be subject to federal regula- tion? The power of Congress extends not only to the regulation of transactions which are part of interstate commerce, but to the protection of that commerce from injury. It matters not that the injury may be due to the conduct of those engaged in intrastate operations. Thtxs, Congress may protect the safety of those employed in in- terstate transportation "no matter what may be the source of the dangers which threaten it." Southern Ry. Co. v. United States, 222 U. S. 20, 27. We said in Second Employers' LiabiZity Cases, 223 U. S. 1, 51, that it is the "effect upon interstate commerce," not "the source of the injury," which is "the criterion of congressional power." We have held that, in dealing with common car- riers engaged in both interstate and intrastate commerce, the dominant authority of Congress necessarily embraces the right to control their intrastate operations in all mat- ters having such a close and substantial relation to inter- state traffic that the control is essential or appropriate to secure the freedom of that traffic from interference or un- just discrimination and to promote the efficiency of the interstate service. The Shreveport Case, 234 U. S. 342, 351, 352; Wisconsin Railroad Comm'n v. Chicago, B. & Q. R. Co., 257 U. S. 563, 588. And combinations and con- spiracies to restrain interstate commerce, or to monopolize any part of it, are none the less within the reach of the Anti-Trust Act because the conspirators seek to attain their end by means of intrastate activities. Coronado Coal Co. v. United Mine Workers, 268 U. S. 295, 310; Bedford Cut Stone Co. v. Stone Cutters Assn., 274 U. S. 37, 46. We recently had occasion, in Local 167 v. United States, 291 U. S. 293, to apply this principle in connection with 544 SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES. 545 495 Opinion of the Court. the live poultry industry. That was a suit to enjoin a conspiracy to restrain and monopolize interstate com- merce in violatiQn of the Anti-Trust Act. It was shown that marketmen, teamsters and slaughterers (shochtim) had conspired to burden the free movement of live poultry into the metropolitan area in and about New York City. Marketmen had organized an association, had allocated retailers among themselves, and had agreed to increase prices. To-accomplish their objects, large amounts of money were raised by levies upon poultry sold, men were hired to obstruct the business of dealers who resisted, wholesalers and retailers were spied upon and by violencc and other forms of intimidation were prevented from freely purchasing live poultry. Teamsters refused to handle poultry for recalcitrant marketmen and members of the shochtim union refused* to slaughter. In view of the proof of that conspiracy, we said that it was unneces- sary to decide when interstate commerce ended and when intrastate commerce began. We found that the proved interference by the conspirators "with the unloading, the transportation, the sales by marketmen to retailers, the prices charged and the amount of profits exacted" oper-- ated "substantially and directly to restrain and burden the untrammeled shipment and movement of the poul- try" while unquestionably it was in ihiterstate commerce. The intrastate acts of the conspirators were included in the injunction because that was found to be necessary for the protection of interstate commerce against the at- tempted and illegal restraint. Id., pp. 297, 299, 300. The instant case is not of that sort. This is not a prose- cution for a conspiracy to restrain or monopolize inter- state commerce in violation of the Anti-Trust Act. Defendants have been conyicted, not upon direct charges of injury to interstate commerce or of interference with persons engaged in that commerce, but of violations of certain provisions of the Live Poultry Code and of con- 546 OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Opinion of the Court. 295 U. S. spiracy to commit these violations. Interstate commerce is brought in only upon the charge that violations of these provisions-as to hours and wages of employees and local sales--" affected " interstate commerce. In determining how far the federal government may go in controlling intrastate transactions upon the ground that they "affect" interstate commerce, there is a neces- sary and well-established distinction between direct and indirect effects. The precise line can be drawn only as individual cases arise, but the distinction is clear in prin- ciple. Direct effects are illustrated by the railroad cases we have cited, as e. g., the effect of failure to use pre- scribed safety appliances on railroads which are the high- ways of both interstate and intrastate commerce, injury to an employee engaged- in interstate transportation by the negligence of an employee engaged in an intrastate movement, the fixing of rates for intrastate transporta- tion which unjustly discriminate against interstate com- merce. But. where the effect of intrastate transactions upon interstate commerce is merely indirect, such trans- actions remain within the domain of state power. If the commerce clause were construed to reach all enterprises and transactions which could be said to have an indirect effect upon interstate commerce, the federal authority would embrace practically all the activities of the people and the authority of the State over its domestic concerns would exist only by sufferance of the federal government. Indeed, on such a theory, even the development of the State's commercial facilities would be subject to federal control. As we said in the Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U. S. 352, 410: "In the intimacy of commercial relations, much that is done in the superintendence of local matters may have an indirect bearing upon interstate commerce. The development of local resouircds and the extension of local -facilities may have a very important effect upon communities less favored and to an appreciable degree SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES. 549 495 Opinion of the Court. of prices brings about a demoralization of the price struc- ture. Similar conditions may be adduced in relation to other businesses. The argument of the Government proves too much. If the federal government may deter- mine the wages and hours of employees in the internal commerce of a State, because of their relation to cost and prices and their indirect effect upon interstate com- merce, it would seem that a similar control might be exerted over other elements of cost, also affecting prices, such as the number of employees, rents, advertising, methods of doing business, etc. All the processes of pro- duction and. distribution that enter into cost could like- wise be controlled. If the cost of doing an intrastate business is in itself the permitted object of federal control, the extent of the regulation of cost would be a question of discretion and not of power. The Government also makes the point that efforts to enact state legislation establishing high labor standards have been impeded by the belief that unless similar action is taken generally, commerce will be diverted from the States adopting such standards, and that this fear of diver- sion has led to demands for federal legislation on the subject of wages and hours. The apparent implication is that the federal authority under the commerce clause should be deemed to extend to the establishment of rules to govern wages and hours in intrastate trade and industry gen- erally throughout the dountry, thus overriding the author- ity of the States to deal with domestic problems arising from labor conditions in their internal commerce. It is not the province of the Court to consider the eco- nomic advantages or disadvantages of such a centralized system. It is sufficient to say that the Federal Consti- tution does not provide for it. Our growth and develop- ment have called for wide use-of the commerce power of the federal government in its control over the expanded activities of interstate commerce, and in protecting that 550 OCTOBER TERM, 1934. Opinion of the Court. 295 U. S. commerce from burdens, interferences, and conspiracies to restrain and monopolize it. But the authority of the fed- eral government may not be pushed to such an extreme as to destroy the distinction, which the commerce clause itself establishes, between commerce "among the several States" and the internal concerns of a State. The same answer must be made to the contention that is based upon the serious economic situation which led to the pas- sage of the Recovery Act,-the fall in prices, the decline in wages and employment, and the curtailment of the market for commodities. Stress is laid upon the great im- portance of maintaining wage distributions which would provide the necessary stimulus in starting "the cumula- tive forces making for expanding commercial activity." Without in any way disparaging this motive, it is enough to say that the recuperative efforts of the federal govern- ment must be made in a manner consistent with the au- thority granted by the Constitution. We are of the opinion that the attempt through the pro- visions of the Code to fix the hours and wages of em- ployees of defendants in their intrastate business was not a valid exercise of federal power. The other violations for which defendants were con- victed related to the making of local sales. Ten counts, for violation of the provision as to "straight killing," were for permitting customers to make "selections of in- dividual chickens taken from particular coops and half coops." Whether or not this practice is good or bad for the local trade, its effect, if any, upon interstate commerce was only indirect. The same may be said of violations of the Code by intrastate transactions consisting of the sple "of an unfit chicken" and of sales which were not in, accord with the ordinances of the City of New York. The requirement of reports as t6 prices and volumes of de- fendants' sales was incident to the effort to control their intrastate business. SCHECHTER CORP. v. UNITED STATES. 551 495 CARDOZO, J., concurring. In view of these conclusions, we find it unnecessary to discuss other questions which have been raised as to the validity of certain provisions of the Code under the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment. On both the grounds we have discussed, the attempted delegation of legislative power, and the attempted regula- tion of intrastate transactions which affect interstate com- merce only indirectly, we hold the code provisions here in question to be invalid and that the judgment of conviction must be reversed. No. 854-reversed. No. 864--affirmed. MR. JUSTICE CARDOZO, concurring. The delegated power of legislation which has found expression in this code is not canalized within banks that keep it from overflowing. It is uncorifined and vagrant, if I may borrow my own words in an earlier opinion. Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan, 293 U. S. 388, 440. This court has held that delegation may be unlawful though the act to be performed is definite and single, if the necessity, time and occasion of performance have been left in the end to the discretion of the delegate. Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan, supra. I thought that ruling went too far. I pointed out in an opinion that there had been "no grant to the Executive of any roving commission to inquire into evils and then, upon' discovering them, do anything he pleases." "293 U. S. at p. 435. Choice, though within limits, had been given him "as to the oc- casion, but none whatever as to the means." Ibid. Here, in the case before us, is an attempted delegation not con- fined to any single act nor to any class or group of acts identified or described by reference to a standard. Here in effect is a roving commission to inquire into evils and upon discovery correct them. OCTOBER TERM, 1934. CARnozo, J., concurring. 295 U. S. vasive. The licit and illicit sections are so combined and welded as to be. incapable of severance without destruc- tive mutilation. But there is another objection, far-reaching and incur- able, aside from any defect of unlawful delegation. If this code had been adopted by Congress itself, and not by the President on the advice of an industrial associa- tion, it would even then be void unless authority to adopt -it is included in the grant of power "to regulate commerce with foreign nations. and among the several states." United States Constitution, Art. I, § 8, Clause 3. I find no authority in that grant for the regulation of wages and hours of labor in the intrastate transactions that make up the defendants' business. As to this feature of the case little can be added to the opinion of the court. There is a view of causation that would obliterate the dis- tinction between what is national and what is local in the activities of commerce. Motion at the outer rim is com- municated perceptibly, though, minutely, to recording instruments at the center. A society such as ours "is an elastic medium which transmits all tremors throughout its territory; the only question is of their size." Per Learned Hand, J., in the court below. The law is not in- different to. considerations of degree. Activities 'local in their immediacy do not become interstate and national because of distant repercussions. What is near and what is distant may at times be uncertain. Cf. Chicago Board of Trade v. Olsen, 262 U. S. 1. There is no penumbra of uncertainty obscuring judgment,'here. To find immedi- acy or directness here is to find it almost everywhere. If centripetal forces are to be isolated to the exclusion of the -forces that oppose and counteract them, there will be an end to our federal system.' To take from this code the provisions as to wages and the hours of labor is to destroy it altogether. If a trade or an industry is so predominantly local as to be exempt 554 LOUISVILLE BANK v. RADFORD. 555 555 Syllabus. from regulation by the Congress in respect of matters s~ih as these, there can be no "code" for it at- All 'Thisis clear from the provisions of § 7a of the ACt withits explicit disclosure of the statutory scheme. Wages and the hours of labor are essential features of the plan, its very bone and sinew. There is no opportunity in such circumstances for the severance of the infected parts in the hope of sav- ing the remainder. A code collapses utterly with bone and sinew gone. I am authorized to state that MR. JUsTIcE SToNE.joins in this opinion. ______________ LOUISVILLE JOINT STOCK LAND BANKt v. RADFORD. CERTIORARI TO THE CIRCUIT COURT OF APPEALS4 O kE SIXTH CIRCUIT. No. 717. Argued April 1, 2, 1935.--Decided May:27, 1935. 1. The bankruptcy power, like the other great substantive: powler § of Congress, is subject to the Fifth Amendment. P. 589. 2. Under the bankruptcy power, Congress may discharge the odebtor's personal obligation, because, 'unlike the States, it is not prohibited. from impairing the obligation of contracts; but it can not 'take ?or the benefit of the debtor rights in specific property, acquired by the creditor prior to the Act. P. 589. 3. The Fifth Amendment commands that, however great the Nation's need, private property shall not be taken even for a wholly public use without just compensation. P. 602. 4. If the public interest requires, and-permits, the taking of property of individual mortgagees in order to relieve the necessities of indi- vidual mortgagors, resort must be had to proceedings by eminent domain; so that, through taxation, the burden of' the relief afforded in the public interest may be borne -by the public. Pp. 598, 602. 5. The provisions added to § 75 of the Bankruptcy Act by the Act of June 28, 1934, known as the Frazier-Lemke Act, operate, as applied in this case, to take valuable rights in specific property from one person and give them to another, in violation of the Constitution. P. 601.