Science 10 - 4th Grading Finals notes reviewer, Study notes of Earth science

Download Science 10 - 4th Grading Finals notes reviewer and more Study notes Earth science in PDF only on Docsity! Nervous System (gray is extra): ● You can think of the Nervous System as the main control and communication center of your body. ○ It deals with movement, thoughts, emotions, digestion, heart beat, etc. (basically everything.) ● Your Nervous System has 3 overlapping functions: 1) It monitors changes inside and outside of the body. This is done by millions of sensory receptors. a) “Stimuli” is what we call those changes b) The gathered information is called “Sensory Input” 2) It processes and interprets Sensory Input, then decides what to do. a) This whole process is called “Integration”. 3) Then an effect or decision happens. This can be done by the activation of muscles or glands (effectors). a) This is called the “Motor Output” 1. Schwann Cells ● They also form Myelin Sheaths around nerve fibers . ● They can only myelinate one axon 2. Satellite Cells ● They act as a cushion or protection for PNS cells. IV. Neurons ● Structurally, neurons differ from one another. But they all have common features. ● They all have a cell body, nucleus, and processes/fibers that extend outwards. 1. Cell Body (Soma) ● This is the metabolic center, or the main thing that keeps the neuron alive. ● Surrounding the nucleus is cytoplasm, which contains the usual organelles except centrioles. ● The transparent nucleus has a nucleolus in its center ● We have two abundant Rough Endoplasmic Reticulums (RER), a organelle, called ○ Nissl Bodies ○ Neurofibrils: helps maintain cell shape 2. Processes/Fibers ● These are armlike strings that extend throughout your body. ● We have two main types of Processes: ○ Dendrites - Sends impulses towards the cell body. - In a neuron there are hundreds of branching dendrites - Dendr = tree Central Nervous System: I. Functional Anatomy of the Brain ➢ Brain ● The brain is about two good fistfuls of pinkish gray tissue, wrinkled like a walnut and with the texture of cold oatmeal. ○ Or, wrinkled like a walnut, the size of a grapefruit, and the texture of tofu. ● It’s about 3 pounds (1.36078 kg or ~1.4 kg) ● Has about 100 billion neurons ● Since the brain is so complex, it is usually divided into 4 major parts: ○ Cerebral Hemispheres ○ Diencephalon ○ Cerebellum ○ Brain Stem ➢ Cerebral Hemispheres ● Pairs or groups of cerebral hemispheres are called “Cerebrum” ● This is the largest part of the brain ● Cerebrum surface terminologies: 1. Gyrus (Plural:Gyri) ● Thicc folds of the brain ● Help makes the brain surface larger for better processing. 2. Sulcus (Plural:Sulci) ● Shallow grooves that separate the gyri 3. Fissures ● Deeper grooves that separate large regions of the brain 4. Longitudinal Fissure ● Splits brain into right and left hemispheres. 5. Lobes ● Different regions of the brain's surface. ● Named after cranial bones that’s over them. ○ Frontal Lobe:Controls movement & memory. ○ Temporal Lobe:Processes sound & memory. ○ Parietal Lobe:Manages touch & spatial perception. ○ Occipital Lobe:Processes visual information. ● Each cerebral hemisphere has three major regions: ○ Gray Matter Cortex - Outer layer of hemisphere. Looks grayish - Used for thinking and thoughts ○ Internal Area ofWhite Matter - Connects the different parts of the brain. ○ Basal Nuclei - Islands of gray matter located deep within the white matter - This helps with movement (somatic & autonomic) II. Gray Matter Cortex (Text Colored for clarity. Red = Motor; Blue = Sensory) 1. Cerebral Cortex ● The outer layer of the brain, ● Responsible for various functions, including speech, memory, logical and emotional responses, consciousness, and voluntary movement. 2. Primary Somatic Sensory Area: ● In the parietal lobe, behind the central sulcus. ● Interprets sensations like pain, temperature ● The sensory pathways are crossed, meaning that your left side of your brain receives impulses from the right side of your body (vice versa) 3. Special Sensory Areas ● These interpret the impulses from special senses. 4. Primary Motor Area ● Allows us to move our skeletal muscles 5. Pyramidal Tract ● A majority of axons from the Primary Motor Area form this tract. ● Also called “Corticospinal Tract” ● Tracts from the brain that extend down to the spine ○ Broca’s Area - Motor speech area. This is how your mouth speaks words. ➢ Both of these Association Areas are associated with higher cognitive functions: 6. Anterior Association Area ● Associated with higher intellectual reasoning, socially acceptable behavior, and language comprehension. ● The frontal lobes usually are involved with language comprehension . 7. Posterior Association Area ● Involved in recognizing patterns, faces, and integrating various inputs to understand complex situations. ● It also allows and helps you to speak III. Other Major Brain Regions 1. Diencephalon ● Positioned atop the brain stem and enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres. ● Also called the “Interbrain”. ● Major Structures of the Diencephalon: 1. Thalamus: ● Located at the middle of the brain, like a relay station. ○ (Relay station: a place where info is received and then transmitted or redirected) ● Helps with sending messages for what we feel. ● Takes signals from the body's senses (like touch or pain) and sends them to the right parts of the brain. ○ Example: When you touch something hot, the thalamus helps you quickly understand it's hot and that you should move your hand away. ● Like the pons, it is an important area for fiber tracts. ● Pyramidal Tracts: This is where important motor fibers (pyramidal tracts) cross over to the opposite side. ● Contains many nuclei that regulate crucial bodily functions. ○ Examples: Control of heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, and vomiting. 4. Cerebellum: ● Projects dorsally (towards the back) from under the occipital lobe of the cerebrum. ● Resembles a large cauliflower with two hemispheres and a folded surface. ● Like the cerebrum, it has an outer cortex made of gray matter and an inner region of white matter. ● Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity, ensuring smooth and coordinated body movements. (precise timing & coordination) ● Controls our balance and proper posture. ● It’s the brain’s auto pilot, it continuously compares the brain's intentions with actual body performance. ● Receives fibers from the inner ear, eyes, proprioceptors of skeletal muscles and tendons, and other areas. ● Initiates corrective measures when needed, ensuring accurate and smooth movements. ● Its role is impaired when sedated by alcohol. ● Meninges ○ Protective layers of tissue that surround and cover the brain and spinal cord. There are ○ Three layers of meninges, from outermost to innermost: 1. Dura Mater: The outermost and toughest layer. "Dura mater" translates to "tough mother" in Latin, reflecting its sturdy and protective nature. 2. Arachnoid Mater: The middle layer, which has a spider web-like appearance. It is thinner than the dura mater and encases the cerebrospinal fluid in the subarachnoid space. 3. Pia Mater: The innermost layer, which directly adheres to the surface of the brain and spinal cord. It is a delicate and highly vascularized layer. Cerebral hemispheres © Cortex: Gray matter: * Localizes and interprets sensory inputs * Controls voluntary and skilled skeletal muscle activity * Acts in intellectual and emotional processing Basal nucle’ * Subcortical motor centers help control skeletal muscle movements (see Figure 7.15) Diencepha © Thalamus: * Relays sensory impulses to cerebral cortex * Relays impulses between cerebral motor cortex and lower motor centers * Involved in memory 1B Hypothalamus: * Chief integration center of autonomic (involuntary) nervous system * Regulates body temperature, food intake, water balance, and thirst * Regulates hormonal output of anterior pituitary gland and acts as an endocrine organ (producing ADH and oxytocin) 8 Limbic system—A functional system: * Includes cerebral and diencephalon structures (e.g., hypothalamus and anterior thalamic nuclei) * Mediates emotional response; involved in memory processing 8 Midbrain: * Contains visual and auditory reflex centers * Contains subcortical motor centers, * Contains nuclei for cranial nerves Ill and IV; contains projection fibers (e.g., fibers af the pyramidal tracts) ~ Pons: * Relays information from the cerebrum to the cerebellum * Cooperates with the medullary centers to control respiratory rate and depth * Contains nuclei of cranial nerves V-VIl; contains projection fibers i Medulla oblongata: * Relays ascending sensory pathway impulses from skin and proprioceptors * Contains nuclei controlling heart rate, blood vessel diameter, respiratory rate, vomiting, etc. * Relays sensory information to the cerebellum * Contains nuclei of cranial nerves VIlI-Xil; contains projection fibers * Site of crossover of pyramids § Reticular formation—A functional system: « Maintains cerebral cortical alertness; filters out repetitive stimuli * Helps regulate skeletal and visceral muscle activity 1 Cerebellum: * Processes information from cerebral motor cortex, proprioceptors, and visual and equilibrium pathways * Provides “instructions” to cerebral motor cortex and subcortical motor centers, resulting in smooth, coordinated skeletal muscle movernents * Responsible for proper balance and posture VI. Spinal Cord ● Spinal Cord: ○ Cylindrical, glistening white continuation of the brain stem. ○ Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and from the brain, serving as a major reflex center. ○ Extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to the first or second lumbar vertebra. ○ Size: - About the size of a thumb for most of its length. - Enlarged in the cervical and lumbar regions where nerves serving the upper and lower limbs arise. ● In the spine, there are five regions: 1. Cervical (C): The vertebrae in the neck region. 2. Thoracic (T): The vertebrae in the upper and mid-back region. 3. Lumbar (L): The vertebrae in the lower back region. 4. Sacral (S): The vertebrae in the pelvic region, fused together to form the sacrum. 5. Coccygeal (Co or Cd): The vertebrae at the base of the spine, fused together to form the coccyx. ● It is cushioned and protected by meninges. ● Meningeal Coverings: ○ Meningeal coverings extend beyond the spinal cord in the vertebral canal. ○ The meningeal sac below L3 is an ideal spot for a lumbar puncture to remove cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for testing. ● Spinal Nerves: ○ 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord. ○ They exit from the vertebral column to serve specific areas of the body. ● Cauda Equina: ○ Collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end of the vertebral canal. ○ "Cauda equina" means "horse's tail" because it looks similar to a horse's tail VII. Chemistry: ● What is chemistry? ○ It is the study of the properties and behaviors of matter. ○ It is the study of things, and how they work, and why they work. I. Chemistry Terms ● Matter: Anything that occupies space and has mass. ● Elements: Pure substances made up of only one type of atom, characterized by a unique atomic number. ● Particles: Tiny units that make up matter, including atoms, ions, and molecules. ● Atoms: The basic building blocks of matter, consisting of a nucleus with protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons. ● Subatomic Particles: Particles smaller than atoms, including protons, neutrons, and electrons. - Proton: Positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. - Electron: Negatively charged subatomic particle orbiting the nucleus of an atom. - Neutron: Neutral (no charge) subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. ● Molecules: Chemical entities formed when two or more Atoms chemically bond together. ● Mixtures: Combinations of two or more substances in which each substance retains its own chemical properties. Mixtures can be separated by physical means. - Homogeneous Mixture: A mixture with a uniform composition throughout; the individual components are not easily distinguishable. Also known as a solution. - Heterogeneous Mixture: A mixture with a non-uniform composition; the individual components are visibly distinguishable. ● Compounds: Substances composed of two or more Different Elements chemically combined in fixed ratios. ● Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons, resulting in variations of atomic mass. ● Ions:Charged particles formed when atoms gain or lose electrons. - Cation: Positively charged ions formed by the loss of electrons. - Anion: Negatively charged ions formed by the gain of electrons. ● Bonds: Forces that hold atoms together in compounds. - Covalent Bonds: Chemical bonds formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms. - Ionic Bonds: Chemical bonds formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, resulting in the attraction between oppositely charged ions. II. Kinetic Molecular Theory and Gas Postulates ● Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT): - This theory explains the behavior of gasses. - The kinetic-molecular theory explains both pressure and temperature at the - molecular level. The pressure of a gas is caused by collisions of the molecules with the walls of the container. The magnitude of the pressure is determined by how often and how forcefully the molecules strike the walls. ● The Five Postulates of Kinetic Molecular Theory: Postulate One Constant, random motion: Gas particles are in constant motion, traveling in straight paths and colliding with each other and the walls of the container. These collisions are perfectly elastic, meaning that kinetic energy is conserved during collisions. Postulate Two Negligible molecular volume, gasses far apart: The combined volume of all the molecules of the gas is negligible relative to the total volume in which the gas is contained (near zero). Gas is mostly empty space and its particles are far from each other. Postulate Three Constant average kinetic energy Energy can be transferred between molecules during collisions but, as long as temperature remains constant, the average kinetic energy of the molecules does not change with time. Postulate Four No intermolecular forces: The particles in a gas are assumed to exert no attractive or repulsive forces on each other. This assumption is made to simplify calculations and explanations. (Cuz in reality they kinda do have this forces, but it’s near zero) Postulate Five Temperature is related to kinetic energy: The temperature of a gas is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of its particles. As temperature increases, the average kinetic energy of the particles also increases. Skill Issue Explanation: Postulate 1 = Smol and Far Apart Postulate 2 = Move Around Randomly Postulate 3 = Gas Particles have elastic collision (they bounce) Postulate 4 = No Attractive or Repulsive forces (just like u fr) Postulate 5 = Gas particles go fast if HOT; Go slow if COLD Gas Laws: I. Boyle’s Law Biography: ● Born: January 25th, 1627, in County Waterford, Ireland. IV. Gay-Lussac’s Law Gay-Lussac Law: ● Scientist: Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac ○ Birth: December 6, 1778, in Limoges, France ○ Death: May 9, 1850 ● Also known as the Temperature-Pressure Relationship ● Formulated by Joseph Gay-Lussac in 1808. ● The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature when the mass is constant, and the volume is kept constant. ● Mathematical Expression: P∝ T P/T = k ● When the mass of a gas is fixed, and the volume is constant, the pressure exerted by the gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature. ○ If the temperature of the gas increases, the pressure also increases, and if the temperature decreases, the pressure decreases. Gay-Lussac’s Law Equation: (P1/T1) = (P2/T2) Where: ● P1 is the initial pressure ● T1 is the initial temperature ● P2 is the final pressure ● T2 is the final temperature V. Combined Gas Law ● Also known as the General Gas Law. ● It combines Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law, and Gay Lussac’s Law. Four Possible Variations: 1. Both temperature (T) and pressure (P) cause an increase in volume (V). 2. Both temperature (T) and pressure (P) cause a decrease in volume (V). 3. Temperature (T) causes an increase in volume (V), and pressure (P) causes a decrease in volume (V). 4. Temperature (T) causes a decrease in volume (V), and pressure (P) causes an increase in volume (V). ● This law states that the ratio of the product of pressure and volume to temperature in a system remains constant. ● The ratio between the pressure-volume product and the temperature of a system remains constant. Summary: ● Boyle’s Law: Pressure & Volume ● Charles’ Law: Temperature & Volume ● Gay-Lussac’s Law: Pressure & Temperature ● Combined Gas Law: Pressure , Volume, Temperature “It is the fight alone that pleases us, not the victory.” - Blaise Pascal