Perception: Gestalt Principles, Facial Recognition, Pain Sensation, Sleep Stages - Prof. s, Study notes of Psychology

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PSY2012: Quiz 2 Review Concepts + Practice Questions FALL 2023 Chapter 4 Concepts Absolute Threshold ● The lowest level of a stimulus we can detect on 50 percent of the trials when no other stimuli of that type are present ○ Demonstrates how remarkably sensitive our sensory systems are ● Ex: on a clear night, our visual systems can detect a single candle from 30 miles away Signal Detection Theory ● Signal-to-noise ratio ○ It becomes harder to detect a signal as background noises increase ● Response biases: tendencies to make one type of guess over another when we’re in doubt about whether a weak signal is present or absent under noisy conditions ○ This accounts for individual differences in people’s overall sensitivity to the signal as well as some people’s tendency to say “yes” when they’re uncertain and other people’s tendency to say “no” when they’re uncertain Respond “YES” Respond “NO” Stimulus Present True Positive False-Negative Stimulus absent False-Positive True Negative Selective Attention ● Selective attention: allows us to select one sensory channel and turn off the others, or at least turn down their volume ● Filter theory of attention ○ Attention is a bottleneck through which information passes ■ By Donald Broadbent ○ Mental filter slows down the flow of information by enabling us to pay attention to important stimuli and ignore others ○ Dichotic listening: Broadbent tested filter theory of attention with this experiment; participants heard 2 different messages, one delivered to the left ear and one to the right ear Theories of Color Vision Trichromatic Theory ● proposes that we base our color vision on three primary colors (blue, green, and red) Opponent Process Theory ● we perceive colors in terms of three pairs of opponent cells: red or green, blue or yellow, or black or white ● Explains afterimages Trichromatic Theory ● Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory of color vision: Young suggested our vision is sensitive to three primary colors of light; von Helmholtz replicated and extended that proposal by examining the colors that color-blind individuals could see ● Color blindness: ○ Inability to see some or all colors ■ Monochromats: only one type of cone and thereby lose all color vision; extremely rare ■ Most color-blind people can perceive a lot of the world in color because they’re dichromats (have two cones and are missing only one) ● Humans, apes, and some monkeys are trichromats ○ People and our close primate relatives possess three kinds of cones Opponent Process Theory ● Opponent process theory: we perceive colors in terms of three pairs of opponent cells: red or green, blue or yellow, or black or white ○ Provides an explanation for afterimages ● Afterimages ○ Occur when we’ve stared at one color for a long time and then look away → we see a different colored replica of the same image ○ Trichromatic theory does not explain this ● With this theory, it accounts for ganglion cells of the retina and cells in the visual area of the thalamus responding to red spots that are inhibited by green spots ○ Other cells show opposite responses and others distinguish yellow from blue *Our nervous system uses trichromatic and opponent processing principles during color vision ■ Different neurons rely on one principle more than the other Gestalt Principles of Perception (2) Proximity Objects physically close to each other tend to be perceived as unified wholes Similarity All things being equal, we see similar objects as comprising a whole rather than separate objects Continuity We still perceive objects as wholes, even if other objects block part of them Closure When partial visual information is present, our brains fill in what’s missing Symmetry We perceive objects that are symmetrically arranged as wholes more often than those that aren’t Figure-ground We make an instantaneous decision to focus attention on what we believe to be the central figure and largely ignore what we believe to be the background @ Gestalt Principles of Perception (3) @e@ ©0@ 0©80/|| ©8900080 ee @8@ @80 @eeee0 ee e0@ 080 ||ee0000 I ee ee ce || ecccece + - | + pot ee e280 @0 @e@eee0 ee @0@ @0@ ee2eeee@ (a) Proximity (b) Similarity (c) Continuity Vr || bd hd (P<) wf i me ms not (>) (<P) (4) (d) Closure (e) Symmetry (f) Figure-ground Facial Perception ● Prosopagnosia: face blindness; depend on non-facial cues to recognize people (freckles, weight, eyeglasses, clothing) ○ Typically restricted to the face than to stimuli or objects in general ○ Shows the limits of brain plasticity – impairments persist over a lifetime Aids in Facial Recognition ● Holistic processing: the ability to visualize a face as a whole, rather than the sum of its parts ○ Believed to be crucial to face recognition ● Fusiform gyrus and, within it, the fusiform face area play a central role in the capacity of facial recognition ○ In the temporal lobe ● Sprawling networks of neurons may be responsible for face recognition Chapter 5 Concepts Stages of Sleep Stage 1 - non-REM sleep ● Light stage of sleep – lasts for 5 to 10 minutes ● Brain activity powers down bt 50% ● Produces theta waves, slower than beta waves and alpha waves ● Hypnagogic imagery: scrambled, bizarre, and dreamlike images in our consciousness ● Myoclonic jerks: sudden jerks of our limbs as if being startled/falling Stage 2 - non-REM sleep ● Brain waves slow down even more ● Sudden intense bursts of electrical activity called sleep spindles of about 12-14 cycles a second ● K-complexes first appear in the EEG occasional sharply rising and falling waves ○ Only appear when we’re asleep ● 65% of our sleep is in this stage Stages of Sleep Stages 3 and 4 - non-REM sleep ● After about 10 to 30 minutes, deeper slow-wave sleep occurs and we observe: ○ Delta waves: 1 to 2 cycles a second; ■ In stage 3: appears 20 to 50% of the time ■ In stage 4: appears more than half the time ● Both stages are a single, consolidated stage of sleep Stage 5 - REM Sleep ● After 15 to 30 minutes, we return to stage 2 before our brains shift into high-frequency, low-amplitude waves that resemble wakefulness ● Heightened waves, increased heart rate + blood pressure, rapid + irregular breathing ● 20% to 25% of our sleep ● After 10 to 20 minutes, the cycle starts again and we go back into early stages of sleep ● Circle back to REM sleep 5 or 6 times ○ Later REM periods last for half an hour or more compared to earlier periods Circadian Rhythm ● Circadian rhythm ○ Cyclical changes that occur on a 24-hour basis in many biological processes ○ Known as the brain’s biological clock ● Biological processes: hormone release, brain waves, body temperature, and drowsiness ○ 20,000 neurons located in the hypothalamus make us feel drowsy at different times of the day and night ■ Melatonin: regulates circadian rhythms; a hormone that triggers feelings of sleepiness Theories of Dreaming Dream protection theory (Freud) ● Dreams are the guardians of sleep ○ The instincts of the ego would be free to disturb sleep ○ Dream-work disguises and contains threatening impulses by transforming them into symbols that represent wish fulfillment ● Manifest content: details of the dream itself ● Latent content: hidden meaning of the dream Activation-synthesis theory (Hobson and McCarley) ● Dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story ● Dreams reflect the activated brain’s attempt to make sense of random and internally generated neural signals during REM sleep ● Information is haphazard and chaotic → narrative is incoherent and illogical Theories of Dreaming Mark Solms’ forebrain theory ● Solms found that damage to the parietal lobes and deep frontal white matter can lead to a complete loss of dreaming ○ Damaged brain areas are pathways that allow brain centers involved in dreaming to communicate ■ Forebrain can eliminate dreams entirely ● Dreams are driven largely by the motivational and emotional control centers of the forebrain Neurocognitive theory ● Dreams are supported by the brain’s default network and are a meaningful product of of our cognitive capacities, which shape what we dream about ○ More than random neural impulses → they’re ordinary and relate to our experiences ● Simulations where we place ourselves in different mental scenarios and explore possible outcomes ● Associated with routine and unremarkable activities, emotional ● Dream content is stable over long periods of time ● Dreams are a product of our cognitive capacities that mature and affect our dreams as we develop Factors Associated with Substance Use Disorders ● Diagnosis of substance use disorder: experience recurrent significant impairment or distress associated with one or more drugs ● Tolerance: people need to consume an increased amount of a drug to achieve intoxication ● Withdrawal: unpleasant effects of reducing or stopping consumption of a drug that users had consumed habitually ● Physical dependence: when people continue to take a drug to avoid withdrawal symptoms ● Psychological dependence: when people’s continued use of a drug is motivated by intense cravings Explanations ● Sociocultural influences ● Is there an addictive personality that predisposes people to abuse drugs? ○ Substance abuse has been tied to impulsivity, tendency to seek high levels of novel experiences, sociability, propensity to experience negative emotions, find effects of a drug rewarding – not necessarily a cause ● Learning and expectancies ○ People consume drugs to relieve anxiety ● Genetic influences Chapter 6 Concepts lots of behavior analysis topics which is my major <3 if you have an interest, i recommend EAB3002 to learn more about the principles!! Classical Conditioning Terminology Neutral Stimulus Stimulus that does not elicit any particular response Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that elicits an automatic/reflexive response Unconditioned Response A reflexive response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus Conditioned Stimulus A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response because of its association with an unconditioned stimulus Conditioned Response A response previously associated with an unconditioned stimulus that comes to be elicited by a neutral/conditioned stimulus Applications of Classical Conditioning to Daily Life ● Develop physiological associations to stimuli that signal biologically important events ○ Things we want to eat vs things that want to eat us ● Advertising ○ Latent inhibition: when we’ve experienced a CS alone many times, it’s difficult to classically condition to another stimulus ● Fears and phobias ○ Little Albert ● Fetishes ● Disgust reactions Reinforcement vs. Punishment Reinforcement ● Any outcome that strengthens the probability of a response ○ Positive reinforcement: presentation of a stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior ○ Negative reinforcement: removal of a stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior Punishment ● Any outcome that weakens the probability of a response ○ Positive punishment: presentation of a stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior ○ Negative punishment: removal of a stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio Reinforcement after a regular number of responses Variable Ratio Reinforcement after an average number of responses Precise number of responses required is varied Fixed Interval Reinforcement after a response occurred at least once after a specific amount of time has passed Variable Interval Reinforcement after a response occurred at least once after an average amount of time has passed Actual time interval varies randomly Cognitive Models of Learning Observational learning (Bandura) ● Learning by watching others, specifically models like parents, teachers, and other influential people ○ We don’t have to learn firsthand ○ Contributes to not experiencing life-threatening mistakes but also learning maladaptive habits ● Learning of aggression ○ Albert Bandura – Bobo doll ● Mirror neurons: cell in the prefrontal cortex that becomes activated when an animal performs an action or observes it being performed ○ Neurons are “imagining” what it would be like to perform the behavior Insight learning (Köhler) ● Insight: sudden understanding of the problem ○ Chimpanzees seemed to experience the “Aha reaction” – their solutions didn’t appear to reflect trial and error but insight where they “got” the solution and then accurately solved the problem every time ● Findings were anecdotal and unsystematic Biological influences on learning Taste Aversions ● Classical conditioning can lead us to develop avoidance reactions to the taste of food ○ Contradicts other examples of classical conditioning but makes sense evolutionarily 1. Only needs one trial to develop 2. Delay between US and CS in conditioned taste aversions are long (6 to 8 hours) 3. Specific and little evidence of stimulus generalization Preparedness and Phobias ● Preparedness: evolutionary predisposition to learn some pairings of feared stimuli over others owing to their survival value ○ “Evolutionary memories:” emotional legacies of natural selection ● May be the result of latent inhibition ● Genetic influences may play a role in acquisition of certain phobias Instinctive Drift ● Instinctive drift: the tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement ○ Cannot fully understand learning without taking into account biological influences Which of the following most closely mimics the process of transduction? O Betty mixes eggs, flour, and sugar together to make a cake. O While painting, Stan combines the colors red and blue to make purple. O Nike changes its logo from a “swoosh’” to a “panther.” © Gas companies convert crude oil into a fuel that car engines can run on. According to_ theory, learning is controlled by the consequences of an organism's behavic According to__ theory, learning is controlled by the consequences of an organism’s behavior. O class O classical conditioning O obse © observational learning O cogr O cognitive learning O operant conditioning © oper — According to_ theory, learning is controlled by the consequences of an organism's behavic According to__ theory, learning is controlled by the consequences of an organism’s behavior. O class O classical conditioning © obse © observational learning O cogr O cognitive learning O operant conditioning © oper  Omar and Patrick sell magazine subscriptions by telephone. Omar is paid $1.00 for every 5 calls he makes, while Patrick is paid $1.00 for every subscription he sells. Omar is paid on a schedule while Patrick is paid on a schedule. QO fixed ratio; fixed interval O fixed ratio; variable interval O fixed ratio; variable ratio © variable ratio; fixed ratio  Omar and Patrick sell magazine subscriptions by telephone. Omar is paid $1.00 for every 5 calls he makes, while Patrick is paid $1.00 for every subscription he sells. Omar is paid on a schedule while Patrick is paid on a schedule. QO fixed ratio; fixed interval O fixed ratio; variable interval O fixed ratio; variable ratio © variable ratio; fixed ratio  A disorder of the inner ear would be most likely to impact our O sense of smell © sense of pain O hearing O equilibrium Cyclical changes in biological processes that occur on a roughly 24-hour basis are known as O acircadian rhythm O rapid response © consciousness © a biological clock After Pavlov’s dogs became conditioned to salivate at the sound of the metronome, he experimented with sounding the metronome but not presenting the meat powder to the dogs. Soon they stopped salivating to the sound of the metronome. This represents the process called O testing O extinction © acquisition O spontaneous recovery After Pavlov’s dogs became conditioned to salivate at the sound of the metronome, he experimented with sounding the metronome but not presenting the meat powder to the dogs. Soon they stopped salivating to the sound of the metronome. This represents the process called O testing O extinction © acquisition O spontaneous recovery It is tempting, based on anecdotal evidence, to believe that when we die, we will be ushered into a utopian afterlife. After all, many who have had near death experiences (NDEs) have claimed to “see” friends or loved ones waiting for them. There is no scientific evidence, however, to support these claims. This reminds us of which principle of critical thinking? © ruling out rival hypotheses O extraordinary claims O falsifiability O replicability — It is tempting, based on anecdotal evidence, to believe that when we die, we will be ushered into a utopian afterlife. After all, many who have had near death experiences (NDEs) have claimed to “see” friends or loved ones waiting for them. There is no scientific evidence, however, to support these claims. This reminds us of which principle of critical thinking? © ruling out rival hypotheses O extraordinary claims O falsifiability O replicability  Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement? © allowing students homework passes if they work hard during class O giving a child candy for completing their homework © removing a child's chores when he or she completes homework © taking away privileges if a child does not follow classroom rules  Which of the following sensory difficulties is likely to be the most dangerous? O pain insensitivity © blindness © deafness O loss of smell  Which of the following drugs is categorized as a depressant? O marijuana © alcohol O cocaine © LSD  Which of the following drugs is categorized as a depressant? O marijuana © alcohol O cocaine © LSD  Accordingto_ , color vision evolved because perceiving color gave our ancestors an advantage when foraging for food. © opponent process theory O Gestalt theory © trichromatic theory O binocular theory  According to__________, color vision evolved because perceiving color gave our ancestors an advantage when foraging for food. © opponent process theory O Gestalt theory © trichromatic theory O binocular theory  At its most basic level, is an exercise in suggestion. © dreaming O hypnosis O meditation © lucidity  The situation of a student’s final grade improving one letter grade for every three books read represents which schedule of reinforcement? O variable interval O variable ratio O fixed interval O fixed ratio  Pete has played lead guitar in a rock band for years. He often would turn the volume on his guitar way up and spend a great deal of time in front of the speakers during the shows. His resulting hearing impairment over the past few years is most likely the result of O tinnitus © damaged hair cells O noise-induced hearing loss O conductive deafness  Pete has played lead guitar in a rock band for years. He often would turn the volume on his guitar way up and spend a great deal of time in front of the speakers during the shows. His resulting hearing impairment over the past few years is most likely the result of O tinnitus © damaged hair cells O noise-induced hearing loss O conductive deafness  An animal trainer trying to teach a lion to perform tricks for circus. First, the lion is given food if he sits quietly on a chair. Next, the lion is given food if he raises one paw. Finally, the lion is given more food if he gives the trainer a “high-five.” In this example, the lion is being trained by O punishment O generalization O shaping O negative reinforcement  An animal trainer trying to teach a lion to perform tricks for circus. First, the lion is given food if he sits quietly on a chair. Next, the lion is given food if he raises one paw. Finally, the lion is given more food if he gives the trainer a “high-five.” In this example, the lion is being trained by O punishment O generalization O shaping O negative reinforcement  Whenever five-year-old Claire goes to the dentist, she becomes anxious and cries. Since she was not afraid of the dentist on her first visit, her fear was a learned behavior. The UCS in this case was probably __ © the sound of the music in the dentist's waiting room © the dentist's beard O sweet toothpaste © the pain associated with teeth cleaning