Understanding Qualitative Research: The Role of Focus Groups and Depth Interviews, Schemes and Mind Maps of Computer science

Download Understanding Qualitative Research: The Role of Focus Groups and Depth Interviews and more Schemes and Mind Maps Computer science in PDF only on Docsity! Chapter 5 Introduction to Qualitative Research Introduction In this chapter you will learn about: • Qualitative research techniques and in particular focus groups, depth interviews and observation • How to use qualitative tools for exploring and evaluating concepts and ideas. • The advantages and disadvantages of the different qualitative research tools. • The role of the moderator in qualitative research and the techniques they use to get people to open up. The qualitative research techniques Qualitative research is used to find out about people’s attitudes and feelings. It explores how people feel about themselves and about the products and services they use. Finding out about people’s thoughts and feelings through qualitative research is often important in the exploratory stages of a new research project. These research findings can provide a starting point when little or no previous research has been done on a subject. Qualitative research can also provide background, for example interviewing experts in an industry or business area, to get insight into a problem. If some conclusive findings are also needed, it 75 would be necessary to then carry out a second phase of research to collect quantitative data. Qualitative research is only widely used where small segments of the population (or groups of people who have a common charac- teristic) are of specific interest to a researcher. Below is a list of some of the main reasons for carrying out qualitative research: • To evaluate a market, product or consumer where no information exists • To identify and explore concepts • To take researchers rapidly up the learning curve when they know very little about a group of consumers • To identify behaviour patterns, beliefs, attitudes, opinions and motives • To establish priorities amongst categories of behaviour, beliefs, opinions and attitudes • To identify problems in depth and develop models for further research • To put flesh on the bones of points arising from a pilot or major survey • To provide verbatim comments and anecdotes from participants – so that the research findings can be brought alive for the client • To test how a questionnaire works by going through question by question asking about routing, signposting, understanding and ambiguity • Where direct questioning will not give us personal or hidden details about respondents. Market research executives are wholly involved in the process of qualitative research. They carry out the data collection and they do the analysis and interpretation. They have a feel for the subject that others cannot have because they have got the information first hand. The main techniques that are used in qualitative research are: • Focus groups • Depth discussions • Observation 76 A variation is the paired or triangular depth interview. When it is thought that decisions are taken in pairs or small groups, it makes sense to get those people together for the interview. So, for exam- ple, teenage girls who shop together and hang around together, sharing their ideas, would be obvious targets for a paired interview. The triangular interview is an extension of this concept and could involve three teenagers or a family unit of Mum, Dad and the kids. These combinations can be useful when discussing family decisions such as buying cars, choosing cereals, deciding where to go on hol- iday and so on. Sometimes it is helpful for the interviewer to accompany the respondent during a shopping expedition to explore the whole process. A front end interview may set the scene and then the respondent gives a stream of consciousness (talking aloud as thoughts come into their mind) during the shopping experience. A final inter- view may close the process. As might be expected, depth interviews are extremely time consuming and must be carried out by skilled and experienced researchers. As with all qualitative research, the findings are heavy in words, usually transcripts of the taped interviews. There is a limit to how many of these can be carried out and analysed by a small team of just one or two researchers and 20 to 30 such interviews would be considered a maximum. Observation Observation can be a quantitative method as well as qualitative. Some years ago I ran the Paris marathon. As I shuffled with the pack over the start line I noticed two cameras on either side, pointing at our feet. At first I thought the cameras had slipped but then it dawned on me that they were for observational purposes, recording the brands of shoes of the runners when the video footage was played back frame by frame. In the same way that the camera provided the eyes for observing the running shoes, so too it could be positioned discreetly in the corner of the supermarket ceiling, not to stop pilfering but to observe the shopping party and their roles. It can watch our procrastinations as we buy our beans. It can observe behavioural patterns that may be autonomic and which would not be recalled in a conventional Key point Depth interviews are used to obtain a deep undertanding of the thoughts, behaviour and motivations of selected individuals. 79 interview. For example, do we deliberate over our purchase of a can of beans? Do we read the label? What influence and pressure comes from the accompanying kids? Do we pick up other brands and examine them or do we just fly down the aisles throwing cans in the trolley without even checking prices? Observation is still used in the traditional manner. A telecoms com- pany wanted to consider the opportunity for offering information alerts to different industries and chose commercial road transport as a potentially attractive sector. It was decided to commission a qual- itative survey amongst transport managers to find out what type of information they needed in their daily round. Since it was believed that some of the information that was needed and used may be taken for granted, such sources and requirements may not be men- tioned in conventional interviews. A sample of companies employ- ing transport managers was persuaded to allow observers to spend two days in their offices finding out what was requested and how it was used. The observers watched drivers pop their heads around doors and share stories about traffic conditions, best routes, and the weather. They heard phone calls being made to ferry companies to collect timetables. They observed juggling acts as the transport management team sought to optimize return loads and routes. In this way, the complex sources of information that are used as part of the natural cognitive process were noted and recorded and they would not have been found by orthodox interviewing techniques. Observation is used for poster checks to see that they are in good condition. Observation is also used as a complement to the interviewing pro- cess and skilled interviewers know how to interpret the body lan- guage of respondents. We learn to control our upper torso because this is the part of the body on which we focus when we are speak- ing to people. This control means that we manage our face – smil- ing, frowning, and generating a mask to indicate the mood of our engagement. This means that these facial expressions do not give us any deeper clues and insights into the respondent’s answers as it could be all an act. Of course, if the respondent were to blush or vis- ibly sweat as a result of the questioning, this autonomic reaction, would tell a big story. This is not something that can be done to order. So too, leg swinging and foot tapping and the body language of the lower torso could indicate some anxiety. The believability of the clues of body language is summarised in Figure 5.1. 80 Figure 5.1 Body Language Clues In Depth Interviews Matching qualitative research to the research objectives Qualitative research can be used as an exploratory tool. Where there is uncertainty about a subject, and the researcher does not know what detailed questions to ask, a few depth interviews or groups may be sufficient to provide an understanding and explanations which answer the problem. Imagine that you are a manager of a hospital, eager to improve the standard of patient care. Your `clients’ include the young, the mentally ill, the old and the very poorly. What they think of your service is decisive in guiding how you develop in the future – but how do you find out what they think? The very young, the very old and the mentally ill may be unable to tell you. And when do you interview them? If you do so while they are in the hospital, it could bias the result as their treatment may not yet be over and, in any case, they may find it hard to be critical during the period of medical care. It may be better to interview soon after they return home, even though this is the more expensive option. Think about The next time you talk to someone in business, pay attention to their body language. What does it tell you? What other clues sur- rounding the person tell you about them such as the books on their shelves, the watch they are wearing, their clothes, and the way they organise themselves? How much more can you learn about this person and their attitudes from paying attention to non verbal leakage? 81 The groups identified a strong demand for balloons which were a simple and inexpensive means of decoration. Helium balloons offered at an attractive price in a DIY kit would have great appeal. However, what does great appeal mean? What proportion of the population would buy this type of balloon, and with what fre- quency? Follow-on quantitative research was required to calculate the market size. The reason why groups are not capable of yielding quantitative information is twofold. The samples are inevitably small. For exam- ple, four groups covers only 30 or so respondents. Second, the actual form of a group does not lend itself to precise quantification of data – there is a general discussion, perhaps even vigorous argu- ment, and this is difficult to translate into measurable responses. Another feature of groups is the high element of subjectivity in han- dling them and in their interpretation. The outcome depends very much on the group leader and how he or she: • structures the discussion • conducts the meeting • analyses and interprets the results. There is some element of subjectivity in all research but it is partic- ularly strong in group discussion work. If the same brief is given to two experienced group researchers there is a chance that the out- come will differ to some extent. This is obviously far from the sci- entific approach to quantitative research where the interviewer’s personality is expected to have no effect on the result. A client com- missioning group discussions should recognise that the outcome will reflect the views of the respondents and the researcher in some uncertain mixture. Therefore, there has to be every confidence in the ability and skill of the researcher. It is not only important that clients recognise this point, but that the researcher does so as well. The small sample, coupled with this subjectivity, makes the group discussions very suspect to some more quantitative-minded researchers. However, the `number jocks’ too must recognise the limitations of their own techniques, particularly the impossibility of answering the many `how’ and `why’ questions which are vital in marketing. A summary of the advantages and disadvantages of focus groups is given in figure 5.2. 84 Figure 5.2 Advantages And Disadvantages Of Focus groups Depth interviews In second place in popularity as a qualitative research technique, behind group discussions, are depth interviews. The term `depth’ or `in-depth’ is bandied around by market researchers without a pre- cise meaning but implies somehow that the interview is longer rather than shorter, unstructured rather than structured and face-to- face rather than over the telephone. Because the subject is covered in depth, there is a suggestion that the respondent digs deeper for answers, talks more freely and so the true facts, perceptions and Advantages • The brain storm effect generates ideas as one person’s view sparks off ideas in others • They clarify questions that are to be incorporated in a subsequent quantitative survey • Respondents feel safety in numbers and so relax and talk • They are good for resolving differences of opinion between respondents • Spontaneous comments are encouraged • They generate a quick understanding of the issues so that in just 1 to 2 hours everyone has moved far up the learning curve • It is easy for clients to participate in. Up to half a dozen people can watch and become part of the research process • It is an excellent medium for showing things like products or adverts • Almost always groups give a real understanding of the issues even if there are no measurements of how many think what Disadvantages • When the subject is highly sensitive, respondents may be inhibited in exchanging beliefs • The minority view can be lost • Insignificant subjects are “hot- housed” by focusing on them to the extent they are separated from reality • Costly – one group seldom isn’t enough and four groups cost £10-15,000, depending on the difficulty of recruitment • The success of the groups depends very much on the moderator skills and these can be variable • It is not possible to organize groups if respondents are thin on the ground • They are subject to bias from dominating respondents • In a similar way to the above point, they are subject to the herd instinct (everyone agreeing) • It is difficult to know to what extent there has been contamination of views from the debate • They can be difficult to control and sometimes the group doesn’t gel or have any “dynamic” 85 motivations are discovered. Usually the interview is tape recorded rather than written down on a questionnaire. Depth interviews are used where it is important that there is no `contamination’ of respondents’ views one with the others, as hap- pens in group discussions. Also, depths may be preferable to groups when the subject is highly sensitive because it is about sexual prac- tices, personal hygiene or financial planning. In a depth interview, each respondent has the opportunity of speak- ing for most of the duration which is often between half an hour to an hour. In a group discussion, all other things being equal, the dis- cussion time is shared between the respondents and the moderator and each person only has the chance to speak for around 8-10 min- utes. This means that the output from 8 depth interviews is (say) eight hours of taped discussion – much more the 11/2 hours arising from the same number of people in a group. Depth interviews do not benefit from the interaction and `dynamic’ which is so impor- tant in groups but they do work hard. In business-to-business markets depth interviews may be the only option because it is simply not possible to recruit people to groups if they are too thinly scattered. In order to convene a group it is nec- essary to have a pool of around 50 respondents within a tight geo- graphical area (say where time to travel to the venue is within an hour) to successfully achieve 8 or 9 recruits at the appointed hour. Pulling people from a wider area would need a subject of riveting interest or a very attractive incentive. Respondents targeted in depth interviewing have to be carefully chosen. Just as in group discussion recruitment, they are likely to be chosen on the basis of their age, sex, social class or because they are buyers (or not buyers) of a product or service. Fundamental to depth interviewing is listening. To listen carefully to a respondent is to show interest and this is an encouragement to say more. Furthermore, only through listening will an understand- ing be built up from which there could be a deeper line of ques- tioning – the very substance of depth interviewing. A summary of the pros and cons of depth interviews is given in fig- ure 5.3. 86 The role of the moderator and the discussion guide The moderator The role of the moderator is crucial to the success of the focus group. A skilled moderator uses considerable social skills to make people quickly settle down and open up. In most consumer groups the moderator dresses “smart casual” to create a feeling of profes- sional informality. However, if the focus group comprised accoun- tants or members of the legal profession it may be more appropriate to wear a suit. The match between the moderator and the group par- ticipants has been the subject of much research i.e. • How is the credibility of the moderator seen by the group participants? • How much does this affect the group dynamic? The key point is that the moderator needs to be accepted by the respondents and can create a “safe” environment where respon- dents feel comfortable and confident to freely express their own views. The age, gender and experience of the moderator may be critical in some topics. In general, the moderator’s standpoint will be one of a researcher, not an industry expert, and usually their detachment from the topic area is an advantage. However, in some sensitive top- ics, it may be necessary to match the moderator to the group respondents – a female moderator for a female group discussing feminine issues, a male moderator for a male group of heavy beer drinkers, someone who is familiar with medical jargon running a focus group with doctors. Groups are led by a researcher whose role differs considerably from that of an interviewer. The group moderator’s role is: • To steer the discussion through a range of topics which are relevant to the problem. There is usually an order to the “unfolding” of these topics but there is sure to be some influence created by the spontaneity of the group itself. • To act as a catalyst to provoke responses or introduce ideas. Sometimes the researcher should play devil’s advocate or feign ignorance. • To draw a response from those who are quiet and curb those who attempt to monopolise. 89 The way questions are asked in a focus group is quite different to in a conventional interview. Empathy must be created with the mem- bers, relaxing them and generating a lively discussion. A brief intro- duction explains the proceedings including the fact that the proceeds are being taped and people are watching behind the two way mirror. It is then necessary to break the ice by asking each member to introduce themselves and their experience with the sub- ject. Working from a topic guide, the researcher moves the discussion from the broad to the particular. All the time the group is encour- aged to express their own views and challenge the views of other group members. In this way all the issues unfold, supported by a dis- cussion which gives a deeper understanding of the subject being researched. Managing the group dynamic can be made difficult by a dominant personality who may seek a platform for their views and colour those of the other members. Equally there may be slow thinkers, intro- verts, wits, compulsive talkers and the indifferent. Bringing out the best from each, without insulting or embarrassing anyone, requires a mixture of authority and tact. Groups generally take between 60 and 90 minutes to administer, depending on the complexity of the subject and interrup- tions from films or product presentations. Tools of the group moderator The questions in a focus group are carefully designed to elicit the views of the respondents. A discussion guide is prepared prior to the group and the group moderator uses this as their aide memoir of what must be covered. Careful design of the guide ensures a logical flow of conversation around the topic area and a clear focus for the discussion. The topic guide is reflective of how groups operate. Groups always start with an introduction from the moderator explaining the pur- pose of the meeting and what can be expected to happen. Encouragement will be given to join in the conversation but to speak in turn so the tape can pick up the words of wisdom. Each Key point Good moderators make their work look easy. This is because they are professionals who know how to create trust with a group so that respondents speak openly and freely. 90 participant is asked to introduce themselves and comment on their experience with the subject in hand. The nature of questioning is conversational to break the ice and get people talking. Then questions are tossed into the arena and the group is encour- aged to comment, debate, and adjust their views so that the subject gets covered from all angles and points of difference are reconciled so far as is possible. The group moderator will have considered in advance how he or she can stimulate the discussion if necessary. The “Why?” question is particularly important for encouraging free responses but for some respondents this may be difficult because the subject hasn’t been thought through fully. By probing how, when, what, it may be possible to get behind the question and infer the answer why?. As with any depth interviewing approach, questioning tends to be free and open to keep the conversation going and to flush out the fuller answer. Other stimulus material could include: • Visual stimulus materials e.g. video, story boards, photographs, advertisements, web sites • Auditory stimulus materials e.g. tapes, video • Product trials and demonstrations In addition to stimulus materials, there are a number of specific techniques which can be used in focus groups. Some of these, such as projective techniques, are borrowed from psychology and work by tapping into different ways of thinking. Examples of projective tech- niques are: Brainstorming: a storm of ideas is encouraged, anything goes, and the more the merrier. The researcher is looking for just one idea that could be developed and built upon. An important principle of brainstorming is saying what comes to mind without too much aforethought. It is also closely linked to word associations where respondents are asked which words they associate with a product or brand. Sentence completion: this is a development of word association where the moderator presents the group with an incomplete sentence which they are asked to finish. The sentence completion can be car- ried out individually and introduced into the group for discussion, or the group can engage in discussion to complete the sentence. 91