spanish grammar cheat sheet pdf, Cheat Sheet of Spanish Language

Download spanish grammar cheat sheet pdf and more Cheat Sheet Spanish Language in PDF only on Docsity! Spanish Verbs and Essential Grammar Review Prepared by: Professor Carmen L. Torres-Robles Department of Foreign Languages & Literatures Purdue University Calumet Revised: 1 /2003 Layout by: Nancy J. Tilka 2 CONTENTS Spanish Verbs Introduction 4 Indicative Mood 5 ® simple & compound tenses: present, past, future, conditional Subjunctive Mood 12 ® simple & compound tenses: present, past Ser / Estar 16 Essential Grammar Pronouns 20 Possesive Adjectives and Pronouns 23 Prepositional Pronouns 25 Por versus Para 27 Comparisons / Superlatives 31 Preterite / Imperfect 34 Subjunctive Mood 37 Commands 42 Passive Voice 46 5 INDICATIVE MOOD (SIMPLE TENSES) PRESENT TENSE REGULAR VERBS The present tense endings for regular verbs are as follows: -ar conjugation -er conjugation -ir conjugation -o -amos -o -emos -o -imos -as -áis -es -éis -es -ís -a -an -e -en -e -en hablar (to speak) comer (to eat) vivir (to live) hablo hablamos como comemos vivo vivimos hablas habláis comes coméis vives vivís habla hablan come comen vive viven IRREGULAR VERBS 1. Irregular “yo” Form The verbs listed below are irregular only in the yo form. Example infinitive go hacer (to make; to do) hago poner (to put) pongo traer (to bring) traigo salir (to leave; to go out) salgo valer (to be worth) valgo caer (to fall) caigo Example infinitive + z + co conocer (to know) conozco desaparecer (to disappear) desaparezco obedecer (to obey) obedezco producir (to produce) produzco conducir (to drive) conduzco traducir (to translate) traduzco Example infinitive gu fi go distinguir(to distinguish) distingo Example infinitive cer fi zo convencer (to convince) convenzo 6 Example infinitive g fi jo coger (to pick, take) cojo escoger (to choose) escojo proteger (to protect) protejo dirigir (to manage) dirijo exigir (to demand) exijo 2. Stem-Changing Verbs The following verbs are irregular in the stem when conjugated, except* in the nosotros and vosotros forms. Example e fi ie o fi ue e fi i cerrar (to close) dormir (to sleep) pedir (to ask) cierro duermo pido cierras duermes pides cierra duerme pide cerramos* dormimos* pedimos* cerráis* dormís* pedís* cierran duermen piden 3. Irregular "yo" Forms + Stem-Changing The following verbs are irregular in the yo form and irregular in the stem when conjugated except* in the nosotros and vosotros forms. Example -go + stem change tener (to have) tengo / tienes / tiene / tenemos* / tenéis* / tienen venir (to come) vengo / vienes / viene / venimos* / venís* / vienen decir (to tell; to say) digo / dices / dice / decimos* / decís* / dicen conseguir (to get; to obtain) consigo / consigues / consigue / conseguimos* / conseguís* / consiguen 4. Jugar (to play) This verb behaves like a stem-changing verb. An –e must be inserted except* in the nosotros and vosotros forms. Example juego / juegas / juega / jugamos* / jugáis* / juegan 5. Distribuir (to distribute) To avoid the presence of three vowels in a row, this verb requires the –ui to change to –uy, except* in the nosotros and vosotros forms. Other similar verbs also follow this pattern. Example distribuyo / distribuyes / distribuye / distribuimos* / distribuís* / distribuyen 7 OTHER IRREGULAR VERBS ® ser (to be) soy / eres / es / somos / sois / son ® estar (to be) estoy / estás / está / estamos / estáis / están ® ir (to go) voy / vas /va / vamos / vais / van ® dar (to give) doy / das / da / damos / dais / dan ® oler (to smell) huelo / hueles / huele / olemos / oléis / huelen ® haber (aux verb=to have) he / has / ha / hemos / habéis / han PAST TENSES Spanish has two simple past tenses, the imperfect and the preterite. IMPERFECT TENSE: REGULAR VERBS The imperfect endings for regular verbs are as follows: -ar conjugations -er conjugations -ir conjugations -aba -ábamos -ía -íamos -ía -íamos -abas -ábais -ías -íais -ías -íais -aba -aban -ía -ían -ía -ían estudiar comer vivir estudiaba estudiábamos comía comíamos vivía vivíamos estudiabas estudiábais comías comíais vivías vivíais estudiaba estudiaban comía comían vivía vivían IMPERFECT TENSE: IRREGULAR VERBS There are only three irregular verbs in the imperfect tense. ser ir ver era éramos iba íbamos veía veíamos eras érais ibas íbais veías veíais era eran iba iban veía veían *ATTENTION* There are no stem-changing verbs in the imperfect tense. PRETERITE TENSE: REGULAR VERBS The preterite tense endings for regular verbs are as follows: -ar conjugations -er conjugations -ir conjugations -é -amos -í -imos -í -imos -aste -asteis -iste -isteis -iste -isteis -ó -aron -ió -ieron -ió -ieron cantar comer vivir 10 CONDITIONAL TENSE The conditional tense corresponds to the English would. REGULAR VERBS Like the future tense, the conditional tense is formed by adding the conditional endings below to the infinitive. -ía -íamos -ías -íais -ía -ían -ar conjugation -er conjugation -ie conjugation estudiaría estudiaríamos comería comeríamos viviría viviríamos estudiarías estudiaríais comerías comeríais vivirías viviríais estudiaría estudiarían comería comerían viviría vivirían IRREGULAR VERBS (ONLY IN THE STEM) All verbs considered irregular in the future tense, are also considered irregular in the conditional tense. Remember to use the conditional endings. The irregular stems are the same as in the future tense. (COMPOUND TENSES) Compound tenses are formed with the appropriate conjugated form of the auxiliary verb haber (to have)+ past participle (regular or irregular form). REGULAR PAST PARTICIPLES To form regular past participles of –ar conjugations, add the ending –ado to the stem. For –er and –ir conjugations, add the ending –ido to the stem. Example estudiar fi estudiado (studied) comer fi comido (eaten) vivir fi vivido (lived) IRREGULAR PAST PARTICIPLES There are no irregular past participles for –ar conjugation verbs. The following –er and –ir verbs have irregular past participles. -er conjugation past participle -ir conjugation past participle envolver envuelto (wrapped) abrir abierto (opened) devolver devuelto (returned: things) cubrir cubierto (covered) hacer hecho (done) decir dicho (said) poner puesto (placed) descubrir descubierto (discovered) romper roto (broken) morir muerto (dead) resolver resuelto (resolved) escribir escrito (written) ver visto (seen) volver vuelto (returned) 11 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE The present perfect tense is formed by using the present tense of the auxiliary verb haber (conjugated below in the present indicative) + past participle (regular or irregular form). haber (present tense) he hemos has habéis ha han Example He estudiado la lección. I have studied the lesson. Has comido la ensalada. You have eaten the salad. Ha dormido bien. He/She has slept well. Hemos escrito la carta. We have written the letter. Han hecho la tarea. They have done the homework. PAST PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT) The past perfect is formed by using the imperfect tense of the auxiliary verb haber (conjugated below in the imperfect indicative) + past participle (regular or irregular form). haber (impefect tense) había habíamos habías habíais había habían Example Había estudiado la lección. I/He/She had studied the lesson. Habías comido la ensalada. You had eaten the salad. Había dormido bien. I/He/She had slept well. Habíamos escrito la carta. We had written the letter. Habían hecho la tarea. They had done the homework. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE The future perfect is formed by using the future tense of the auxiliary verb haber (conjugated below in the future indicative) + past participle (regular or irregular form). haber (future tense) habré habremos habrás habréis habrá habrán Example Habré estudiado la lección. I will have studied the lesson. Habrás comido la ensalada. You will have eaten the salad. Habrá dormido bien. He/She will have slept well. Habremos escrito la carta. We will have written the letter. Habrán hecho la tarea. They will have done the homework. 12 CONDITIONAL PERFECT TENSE The conditional perfect is formed by using the conditional tense of the auxiliary verb haber (conjugated below in the conditional tense) + past participle (regular or irregular form). haber (conditional tense) habría habríamos habrías habríais habría habrían Example Habría estudiado la lección. I/He/She would have studied the lesson. Habrías comido la ensalada. You would have eaten the salad. Habría dormido bien. I/He/She would have slept well. Habríamos escrito la carta. We would have written the letter. Habrían hecho la tarea. They would have done the homework. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (SIMPLE TENSES) PRESENT TENSE The present tense of the subjunctive mood is equivalent to the English auxiliary verb may. REGULAR VERBS The present tense endings for regular verbs in the subjunctive mood are as follows: ar conjugation -er conjugation -ir conjugation -e -emos -a -amos -a -amos -es -éis -as -áis -as -áis -e -en -a -an -a -an estudiar comer vivir estudie estudiemos coma comamos viva vivamos estudies estudiéis comas comáis vivas viváis estudie estudien coma coman viva vivan IRREGULAR VERBS 1. Verbs with an irregular “yo” form in the present indicative are not only irregular in the “yo” form of the subjunctive, but in all forms of the present subjunctive tense. Example infinitive ga hacer (to make; to do) haga / hagas / haga / hagamos / hagáis / hagan poner (to put) ponga / pongas / ponga / pongamos / pongáis / pongan traer (to bring) traiga / traigas / traiga / traigamos / traigáis / traigan 15 (COMPOUND TENSES) Compound tenses in the subjunctive mood are formed with the appropriate conjugated form of the auxiliary verb haber (to have) + past participle (regular or irregular form). PRESENT PERFECT The present perfect tense is formed by using the present subjunctive of the auxiliary verb haber (conjugated below in the present subjunctive) + past participle (regular or irregular). haber (subjunctive) haya hayamos hayas hayáis haya hayan Example Haya estudiado la lección. I/He/She may have studied the lesson. Hayas comido la ensalada. You may have eaten the salad. Haya dormido bien. I/He/She may have slept well. Hayamos escrito la carta. We may have written the letter. Hayan hecho la tarea. They may have done the homework. PAST PERFECT The past perfect tense is formed by using the past subjunctive (imperfect) of the auxiliary verb haber (conjugated below in the past subjunctive) + past participle (regular or irregular). haber (subjunctive) hubiera hubiéramos hubieras hubiérais hubiera hubieran Example Hubiera estudiado la lección. I/He/She might have studied the lesson. Hubieras comido la ensalada. You might have eaten the salad. Hubiera dormido bien. I/He/She might have slept well. Hubierámos escrito la carta. We might have written the letter. Hubieran hecho la tarea. They might have done the homework. (For uses of the subjunctive mood, see pages 33-37.) 16 SER (TO BE) yo soy nosostros(as) somos tú eres vosotros(as sois él, ella, Ud. es ellos, ellas, Uds. son USES OF SER ® Ser is used to identify people and things. Example Luis es estudiante. Luis is a student. Es un libro. It is a book. ® Ser is used to express nationality. Ser with de (from) is used to express national origin. Example Juan es peruano. Juan is Peruvian. Juan es de Perú. Juan is from Peru. ® Ser with de is used to tell of what material something is made. Example La mesa es de madera. The table is made of wood. ® Ser with para is used to tell for whom something is intended. Example La comida es para Andrés. The meal is for Andrés. ® Ser is used to tell time. Example Es la una. It is one o'clock. Son las dos. It is two o'clock. ® The third person singular of ser is used to express generalizations. Example Es importante estudiar. It's important to study. ® Ser is used to tell where and when an event takes place. Example La fiesta es en la cafetería. The party is in the cafeteria. La fiesta es a las siete de la noche. The party is at seven o'clock. ® Ser is used with adjectives* that describe the fundamental qualities of a person, place, or thing. It describes basic, inherent characteristics. Example Esteban es un hombre inteligente. Esteban is an intelligent man. 17 ESTAR (TO BE) yo estoy nosotros(as) estamos tú estás vosotros(as) estáis él, ella, Ud. está ellos, ellas, Uds. están USES OF ESTAR ® Estar is used to tell the location of something. Example El libro está en la mesa. The book is on the table. Juan está en España. Juan is in Spain. ® Estar is used to form the progressive tense. In Spanish the progressive tense is formed using the verb estar plus the present participle. (The present participle is formed by adding ando to the stem of -ar verbs and iendo to the stem of -er and -ir verbs. The present participle always ends in -o.) Example Los alumnos están estudiando. The students are studying. Ellos están comiendo. They are eating. ® Estar is used to describe health. Example María está enferma. María is sick. ® Estar is used in a number of fixed expressions. Example Estoy de acuerdo con ellos. I am in agreement with them. Está bien. It is okay. Está claro. It's clear. ® Estar is used with adjectives* that describe conditions or states subject to change. Example Estoy muy aburrida. I am very bored. El agua está caliente. The water is hot. *ATTENTION* 20 PRONOUNS DIRECT OBJECT PRONOUNS me nos te os lo los la las USES OF DIRECT OBJECT PRONOUNS Direct object pronouns are used when a person or thing receives the action of the verb directly. These pronouns answer the question what? or who? in relation to the subject and verb. Example Carlos escribe una carta. Carlos writes a letter. (what?--a letter) Carlos la escribe. Carlos writes it. INDIRECT OBJECT PRONOUNS me nos te os le les USES OF INDIRECT OBJECT PRONOUNS Indirect object pronouns are used when a person (or sometimes an animal) receives the action of the verb indirectly. These pronouns usually answer the question to whom? or for whom? in relation to the verb. Example Carlos me escribe una carta. Carlos writes a letter to me. (to whom?--to me) REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS me nos te os se se USES OF REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS Reflexive pronouns are used whenever the subject (singular or plural) does anything to or for him/her/itself. It corresponds to the English forms: myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves, or themselves. Any transitive verb, a verb that can take an object (direct or indirect), can be used reflexively. Reflexive verbs always have se attached to the infinitive. Example lavarse to wash oneself 21 POSITION OF PRONOUNS WITH ONE CONJUGATED VERB In statements or questions with one conjugated verb, the pronoun is placed before the conjugated verb. Example Tengo la revista. I have the magazine. La tengo. I have it. ¿Quién tiene la revista? Who has the magazine? ¿Quién la tiene? Who has it? ® In negative commands the pronoun is placed directly before the conjugated verb. (Don't forget that no is always part of the negative command form.) Example No comas los caramelos. Don't eat the candies. No los comas. Don't eat them. ® In formal or informal affirmative reflexive commands, the pronoun is placed after the conjugated verb. Example ponerse el abrigo to put on your coat (yourself) Póngase el abrigo. Put on (yourself) your coat. (formal) Ponte el abrigo. Put on (yourself) your coat. (informal) ® In formal or informal negative reflexive commands, the pronoun is placed after the conjugated verb. (Don't forget the no is always part of the negative command form.) Example no ponerse el abrigo to not put on you coat (yourself) No se ponga el abrigo. Don't put on (yourself) your coat. (formal) No te pongas el abrigo. Don't put on (yourself) your coat. (informal) WITH MORE THAN ONE VERB When there is more than one verb in a sentence, two different positions are possible for the pronoun. The pronoun may come directly before the conjugated verb, or attached to the end of the infinitive, progressive, or reflexive forms. ® ir + a + infinitive Example Voy a comprar el libro. I am going to buy the book. Lo voy a comprar. (directly before) I am going to buy it. Voy a comprarlo. (attached to the end) I am going to buy it. ® ando / iendo (progressive construction: simple or compound tenses) *A written accent is required when attaching a pronoun to the end of the progressive or the reflexive form. Example Estoy mirando las revistas. I am looking at the magazines. Las estoy mirando (directly before) I am looking at them. 22 Estoy mirándolas. (attached to the end) I am looking at them. He estado mirando las revistas. I have been looking at the magazines. Las he estado mirando. (directly before) I have been looking at them. He estado mirándolas. (attached to the end) I have been looking at them. ® Reflexive Progressive Constructions Example Luis está lavándose las manos. Luis is washing (himself) his hands. Luis se las está lavando. (directly before) Luis is washing (himself) his hands. Luis está lavándoselas. (attached to the end) Luis is watching them. (himself) ® In certain impersonal expression using ser, the pronoun must be attached to the end of the infinitive. Example Es necesario leer el libro. It is necessary to read the book. Es necesario leerlo. It is necessary to read it. COMBINING DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECT PRONOUNS (DOUBLE OBJECT PRONOUNS) ® When two types of pronouns are combined, the indirect always comes first. Example Compro las flores para ti. I buy the flowers for you. Te las compro. I buy them for you. ® When certain combinations of pronouns that begin with the same letter occur, the indirect object pronoun always changes to se. (example: les(s) / lo(s); le(s) / la(s)) Example Yo doy un regalo a Juan. I give a gift to Juan. Yo le + lo doy = Yo se lo doy. I give it to him. ® When two types of pronouns are combined, the two pronouns may be attached to the end of the infinitive or progressive form, or the two pronouns may be placed before the conjugated verb. The order of the two pronouns cannot change regardless of the position you choose. Example Voy a comprar un regalo para Carmen. I am going to buy a gift for Carmen. Se lo voy a comprar. I am going to buy it for her. Voy a comprárselo. I am going to buy it for her. Estoy comprando un libro para mi hijo. I am buying a book for my son. Se lo estoy comprando. I am buying it for him. Estoy comprándoselo. I am buying it for him. 25 PREPOSITIONAL PRONOUNS When subject pronouns are used with prepositions (are objects of the prepositions), they are called prepositional pronouns. USES OF PREPOSITIONAL PRONOUNS ® All subject pronouns (yo, tú, usted, él, ella, nosotros(as), vosotros(as), ustedes, ellos, ellas) remain unchanged when the following prepositions are used: como, entre, excepto, incluso, menos, salvo, según Example Luis estudia como yo (como tú, como Ud., como él, como ella). Luis studies like me. (like you, like him, like her, etc.) Entre tú y yo no hay secretos. Between you and me there are no secrets. ® The first two subject pronouns in the singular form, yo and tú, must be changed to mí and ti when subject pronouns are used with the prepositions below. The other subject pronouns remain unchanged. a, ante, contra, de, desde, en, hacia, hasta , para, por, sin, sobre, tras Example Mis padres desean lo mejor para mí. My parents wish the best for me. No puedo vivir sin ti. I can’t live without you. a mí to me a ti to you ante mí in front of me ante ti in front of you contra mí against me contra ti against you de mí of me de ti of you desde mí from inside of me desde ti from inside of you en mí about me (of me) en ti about (of) you hacia mí toward me hacia ti toward you ® When the first two subject pronouns yo and tú are used with the preposition con, the form mí, and ti requires an additional change: mí drops its accent and becomes migo; and ti becomes tigo. The other subject pronouns remain unchanged: con + mí + go fi con + migo with me con + ti + go fi con + tigo with you Example Daniel baila conmigo. Daniel dances with me. Daniel baila contigo. Daniel dances with you. REFLEXIVE PREPOSITIONAL PRONOUNS Reflexive prepositional pronouns are the same as other prepositional pronouns, however they are used with reflexive verbs. These pronouns (like the reflexive pronouns) refer back to the person performing the action. The Spanish forms mismo, misma, mismos and mismas can be added for emphasis. 26 Example a mí (mismo) to me (myself) referirse to refer to oneself Me refiero a mí misma(o). I refer to myself. lastimarse to hurt oneself a ti (mismo) to you (yourself) Te lastimas a ti misma(o). You are hurting yourself. ® When the preposition con is used with a verb having a reflexive meaning, the same rules apply as previously indicated for the first and second person singular. For the third person singular, the following change occurs: con + si + go fi con + sigo with him/her/self Example Habla consigo. He/She talks to him/herself. ® The Spanish misma(s), mismo(s), may be added for emphasis. 27 POR VERSUS PARA Por and para can both mean for in English. In general, por may refer to a reason (why? = ¿por qué?) or cause for having done something. Para is used to express a future action, a goal, a purpose, a destination, or a use. USES OF POR ® Por is used to indicate length of time. Example Me voy a Valencia por un mes. I’m going to Valencia for a month. La pareja estaba bailando por tres horas seguidas. The couple was dancing for three straight hours. ® Por is used to indicate undetermined or general time. Example Nunca salen por la noche. They never go out at night. Por la mañana voy al gimnasio. In the morning, I’m going to the gym. ® Por is used to express an action that has yet to be completed. Example Su primera novela está publicada, pero su segunda está por publicarse. His first novel is published but, his second has yet to be published. ® Por is used after the ir verbs, venir, pasar, and preguntar. Example José‚ va por pan y leche. José is going for milk and bread. Paso por ti mañana temprano. I’ll come by for you early tomorrow. ® Por is used to express the idea of mistaken identity. Example La tomé por una actriz famosa. He took her for a famous actress. ® Por is used to express cause or reason. Example Pepe se enfadó con Rosa por haber salido con otro hombre. Pepe was angry with Rose for having gone out with another man. No podemos ir a la discoteca por falta de dinero. We can't go to the discotheque for lack of money. ® Por is used to indicate means of communication or mode of transportation. Example Jaime me llama por teléfono cada noche. Jaime calls me on the phone. every night. Van a Europa por barco. They're going to Europe by boat. ® Por is used to indicate intentions, and in the expressions: on behalf of, for the sake of, in favor of. 30 USES OF PARA ® Para is used to indicate destination. Example Vamos para Bogotá en junio. We're going to Bogotá in June. Ya él salió para el club. He already left for the club. ® Para is used to indicate a deadline. Example Para el lunes habré leído los poemas. By Monday I will have read the poems. ® Para is used to express the use or purpose of things. Example La copa es para vino. The goblet is for wine. El vaso es para jugo. The glass is for juice. ® Para is used to express finality, a goal, or purpose of an action. Example Paloma estudia para ingeniera. Paloma is studying to be an engineer. Miguel se viste así para lucir Michael dresses that way (in order) bien. to look good. Tengo un regalo para mi sobrino. I have a present for my nephew. ® Para is used to indicate an action that will be completed in the near future. Example El avión está listo para salir. The plane is about to leave. ® Para is used is used to express a state of inequality. Example Para su edad, Raúl es un niño muy desarrollado. For his age, Raúl is well developed. Para una niña de siete años toca bien el violín. For a seven-year-old, she plays the violin well. ® Para is used to indicate a determined action’s resulting emotions. Example Para mi sopresa, Jorge me invitó a salir esta noche To my surprise, Jorge asked me to go out tonight. ® Here are other common expressions with para: Example no estar para bromas to be in no mood for joking no servir para nada to be of no use para siempre for always no ser para tanto to not be so important 31 COMPARISONS (COMPARATIVOS) COMPARISONS OF EQUALITY ® tan + adjetivo / adverbio + como + persona o cosa as + adjective / adverb + as + person or thing Example Jorge es tan romántico como Luis. Jorge is as romantic as Luis. Carlos canta tan bien como Julio. Carlos sings as well as Julio. ® tanto (a, os, as) + sustantivo + como + persona o cosa as much + noun + as + person or thing as many + noun + as + person or thing Example Yo tengo tanta tarea como tú. I have as much homework as you. Example Marta tiene tantos amigos como yo. Marta has as many friends as I. ® verbo + tanto como + persona o cosa verb + as much as + person or thing Example Pablo sale tanto como nosotros. Pablo goes out as much as we. COMPARISONS OF INEQUALITY When the comparison involves one clause, the following constructions are used: ® más (menos) + adjetivo/adverbio/sustantivo + que + persona o cosa more (less) adjective/adverb/noun + than + person or thing Example Mi trabajo es más (menos) difícil que el tuyo. My work is more (less) difficult than yours. ® verbo + más (menos) + que + persona o cosa verb + more (less) + than + person or thing Example Esteban come más (menos) que yo. Esteban eats more (less) than I. *ATTENTION* ® Before numbers in an affirmative sentence, más (menos) + de is used instead of que. Example Tengo más (menos) de cinco amigos cubanos. I have more (less) than five Cuban friends. ® Before numbers in a negative sentence, the más (menos) + que construction expresses the idea of ‘only’ 32 Example No tengo más que quince dólares. I have only fifteen dollars ® In Spanish, the negative is used after expressions of comparisons. (This is contrary to English.) Example Te quiero más que nunca. I love you more than ever. Susana lo sabía más que nadie. Susan knew it more than anyone. COMPARISONS WITH TWO CLAUSES ® When comparing an adjective, adverb, or idea, de lo + que is used. Example Roberto es más (menos) guapo de lo que me dijiste. Robert is more (less) handsome than you told me. Es más tarde de lo que crees. It's later than you think. ® When comparing a noun, the phrase del (de la, de los, de las) + que is used. It agrees in number and gender with the noun to which it refers. Example Ricardo le compró a Luisa más regalos de los que puede pagar. Ricardo bought Luisa more gifts than he can pay for. Tenemos más (menos) comida de la que necesitamos. We have more (less) food than we need. SUPERLATIVES (SUPERLATIVOS) RELATIVE SUPERLATIVES Relative superlatives are used to express a high degree of the adjective or adverb in relation to a group. The relative superlative of adjectives and adverbs requires the following constructions: ® definite article + más (menos) + adjective/adverb + de / en + person or thing. Example Rosa es la chica más bonita de la clase. Rosa is the prettiest girl in the class. Rosa es la chica que corre más rápidamente en el equipo. Rosa is the girl who runs the fastest on the team. ABSOLUTE SUPERLATIVES The absolute superlatives are used to express a high degree of an adjective or adverb without comparison to a another person or thing. There are three possible superlative constructions. They are expressed in English by the words most or extremely. ® muy + adjective / adverb 35 IMPERFECT (PAST TENSE) USES OF THE IMPERFECT ® The imperfect is used if the on going or habitual nature of the action is stressed, with no reference to its termination. Example Carlos era estudiante. Carlos was (used to be) a student. Carlos may or may not still be a student José escribía las cartas. José was writing the letters. ® Simultaneous actions or actions in progress are expressed with the imperfect, usually with the word mientras (while). Example Yo escribía las cartas mientras Ana leía el periódico. I was writing the letters while Ana was reading the newspaper. ® The imperfect is used to express descriptions, and physical, mental, and emotional states. Example Estaban cansados. They were tired. Rosa tenía veinte años. Rosa was twenty years old. Raúl parecía un loco. Raúl was behaving/seemed like a mad person. ® The imperfect is used in telling time. Example Eran las ocho de la noche. It was 8:00 p.m. ® Certain words and expressions are associated with the imperfect. Example todos los días every day todos los lunes every Monday siempre always frecuentemente frequently mientras while de niño as a child de joven as a young person ® The construction estar + progressive (gerundio) uses the imperfect. This corresponds to the English construction: was, were, + ing Example El estaba estudiando. He was studying. Ellos estaban comiendo. They were eating. ® Imperfect corresponds to the English would, when it implies used to. Example Mi familia viajaba a México. My family would travel to Mexico (used to) 36 ® When the following verbs are used in the imperfect tense, their usual meaning is understood. The meaning of these verbs changes when used in the preterite tense. (see section on preterite) (meaning with imperfect) conocer to know, be familiar with saber to know, to have knowledge of poder to be able, capable of no poder not to be able, not being capable of tener to have (referring to possession) querer to want no querer to want Example Yo conocía bien a Teresa. I knew Teresa well. Ellos sabían donde estábamos. They knew where we were. El niño no podía abrir la puerta. The child couldn’t open the door. Yo tenía una casa en las montañas. I used to have a house in the mountains. Federico quería ir a la playa. Federico wanted to go to the beach. Javier no quería ir al mercado. Javier didn’t want to go to the market. *ATTENTION* (IMPERFECT AND PRETERITE) The words associated with the preterite or imperfect do not automatically cue either tense. The most important consideration is the meaning that the speaker wishes to convey. Example De niño él jugaba fútbol. As a child, he used to play football. De niño él empezó a jugar fútbol. He started to play as a child. The preterite and the imperfect frequently occur in the same sentence. In the first part of the sentence below, the imperfect tells what was happening when another action (second part of the sentence), the preterite broke the continuity of the ongoing activity. Example Miguel estudiaba cuando sonó el teléfono. Miguel was studying when the telephone rang. The preterite and the imperfect are also used together in narration of an event. The preterite advances the action while the imperfect sets the stage, describes the conditions that caused the action, or emphasizes the continuing nature of a particular action. 37 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD The subjunctive mood is used to refer to events or conditions that are subjective in relation to the speaker’s reality or experience. It usually deals with possibilities or subjective reactions, rather than with established facts. Because expressions of volition, emotion, doubt, denial, and unreality all represent reactions to the speaker’s perception of reality, they are followed in Spanish by the subjunctive. The Spanish subjunctive is most often used in subordinate or dependent clauses. In Spanish these clauses are generally introduced by que (that). In English, the word that is often dropped in similar constructions. A dependent clause can be a noun, adjectival or adverbial clause. A dependent clause is one that cannot stand alone as a sentence: it depends on the main clause of the sentence, which usually consists of the subject and a verb. Dependent noun clauses represent people, things, or ideas. *ATTENTION* It is the main clause that determines the use of the subjunctive. PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE IN NOUN CLAUSES A noun clause is a clause (subject + verb) that serves as the direct object of the verb in the main clause. A dependent noun clause is usually introduced by the conjunction que. The subjunctive is used in a dependent noun clause when the following conditions are present: ® There is a change of subject. If the subject in the main clause is the same as that of the subordinate (dependent) clause, the infinitive is used. Example Yo quiero que ellos salgan I want that they leave. (them to leave) Yo quiero salir. I want to leave. ® The verb in the main clause expresses hope, doubt, denial, consent, prohibition, permission, obligation, supplication, emotion, feelings, surprise, fear, regret, advise, insistence, necessity, preference, or any similar sentiments. Example Yo quiero (espero, dudo, no creo, mando, recomiendo, obligo, permito, necesito, sugiero, prefiero, prohibo, aconsejo, temo, siento) que tú vayas conmigo. I want (hope, doubt, don’t believe, order, recommend, command, allow, need, suggest, prefer, forbid, advise, fear, feel) that you go with me. ® The expressions quizá(s), tal vez, and acaso require the subjunctive when the speaker is uncertain about an action. The expressions quizá(s), tal vez, acaso and ojalá indicate uncertainty or doubt. These expressions do not require que in order to be subjunctive. Example Quizá(s) él llegue a tiempo. Perhaps he will arrive on time. Quizá(s) sea tarde. Maybe (Perhaps) it is late. Tal vez él llegue temprano. Perhaps he arrives (will arrive) early. Ojalá vengan a tiempo. I hope they arrive on time. 40 ® ojalá (que) is always followed by the subjunctive, whether in the present or the past. Example Ojalá (que) ella se gradúe pronto. I hope that she graduates soon. Ojalá (que) ella se graduara pronto. I hope that she graduated soon. The following formula explains when the past subjunctive is needed. PRETERITE IMPERFECT CONDITIONAL PAST (IMPERFECT) OF SUBJUNCTIVE COMPOUND CONDITIONAL Example El jefe mandó que Ud. asistiera. The boss ordered that you attend. (ordered you to attend) El jefe mandaba que Ud. asistiera. The boss was ordering that you attend. (ordering you to attend) El jefe había mandado que Ud. asistiera. The boss had ordered that you attend. (ordered you to attend) El jefe ordenaría que Ud. asistiera. The boss would order that you attend. (order you to attend) El jefe habría ordenado que Ud. asistiera. The boss would have ordered that you attend. (ordered you to attend) SUBJUNCTIVE IN CONDITIONAL ‘IF CLAUSES’ (CLAUSULAS ‘SI’) The present subjunctive is never used in a conditional clause. The past subjunctive (simple or compound) is used in a conditional clause to express a hypothetical condition or a statement that is contrary to the fact. Example Si yo fuera rico(pero no lo soy), compraría una mansión. If I were rich (but I am not), I would buy a mansion. Si hubieras llegado a tiempo (pero llegaste tarde), habríamos ido de compras. If you had arrived early (but you arrived late), we would have gone shopping. ® The past subjunctive is always used in a clause introduced by como si (as if). Example Pepe habla como si lo supiera todo. Pepe speaks as if he knows everything. 41 THE SUBJUNCTIVE SUMMARY (WHEN TO USE IT) ****************************** Wishes, supplication, necessity, prohibition, preference, insistence Hopes, obligations, suggestions Emotions, regrets, advise & consent Negation, doubt & denial Tal vez, acaso, quizás Ojalá Unknown, or nonexistence antecedent Some conjunction and adverbial clauses Expressions (impersonal, etc.) Imperatives (except tú affirmative) To influence another’s behavior ***************************** 42 FORMAL UD. / UDS. COMMANDS AFFIRMATIVE Formal (Ud., Uds.) commands in the affirmative take the corresponding forms of the present subjunctive. The subject pronouns Ud. and Uds. may be expressed to make the command more formal or polite. Change the verb endings as follows: For Ud. (you singular) For Uds. (you plural) ar fi e ar fi en er / ir fi a er / ir fi an Example (cantar) Cante la canción. (Ud.) Sing the song. (singular formal) Canten la canción. (Uds.) Sing the song. (plural) (comer) Coma la ensalada. (Ud.) Eat the salad. (singular) Coman la ensalada. (Uds.) Live in the city. (plural formal) (vivir) Viva en la ciudad. (Ud.) Live in the city. (singular formal) Vivan en la ciudad. (Uds.) Live in the city. (plural) NEGATIVE Formal commands in the negative are formed exactly like the affirmatives, except that you add no before the conjugated verb. Example No cante la canción. Don't sing the song. (singular formal) No canten la canción. Don't sing the song. (plural) NOSOTROS COMMANDS AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE Affirmative* and negative nosotros (we) commands are formed using the first person plural of the subjunctive. Nosotros commands (affirmative and negative) are used when the speaker is included in the command. These commands are translated as let's. Change the verb ending as follows: nosotros ar fi emos er / ir fi amos Example (cantar) Cantemos ahora. Let's sing now. No cantemos ahora. Let's not sing now. (comer) Comamos ahora. Let's eat now. No comamos ahora. Let's not eat now. (vivir) Vivamos ahora. Let's live now. No vivamos ahora. Let's not live now. *Exception: Only the affirmative nosotros command of the verb ir requires the first person plural of the indicative instead of the subjunctive. (Remember to use subjunctive for the negative form of the verb ir.) Example Vamos a la fiesta. Let's go to the party. 45 *ATTENTION* When using reflexive verbs in any form of a command (Ud.,Uds., tú, nosotros, or vosotros), the rule of attaching is as follows: ® Affirmative Reflexive Commands: The affirmative reflexive pronoun is attached to the end of the verb. Example vestirse to get dressed Vístase. (formal Ud.) Get (yourself) dressed. Vístanse. (formal Uds.) Get (yourself) dressed. Vístete. (informal tú) Get (yourself) dressed. Vistámonos. (nosotros) Let’s get (ourselves) dressed. Vistáos. (vosotros) Get (yourselves) dressed (you’all). *Notice that in the affirmative nosotros command, the final s of the verb is dropped before attaching the corresponding pronoun nos. This does not occur in the negative reflexive. Example (vestirse) Vistámonos. Let’s get (ourselves) dressed. ® Negative Reflexive Commands: The negative reflexive pronouns are placed before the conjugated verb. Example (no vestirse todavía) to not get dressed yet No se vista todavía. (Ud.) Don’t get dressed yet. (formal plural) No se vistan todavía. (Uds.) Don’t get dressed yet. (formal plural) No te vistas todavía. (tú) Don’t get dressed yet. (informal singular) No os vistáis todavía. (vosotros) Don’t get dressed yet. (informal plural) No nos vistamos todavía. (nosotros) Let’s not get dressed yet. 46 THE TRUE PASSIVE VOICE (LA VERDADERA VOZ PASIVA) In an active sentence, the subject performs the action of the verb. In a passive sentence, the subject receives the action. subject + ser + past participle used as an adjective + por + agent Example active voice El autor escribió* las novelas. The author wrote the novels. passive voice Las novelas fueron* escritas por el autor. The novels were written by the author. *ATTENTION* In a passive sentence, the verb ser may be used in any tense, however it must be in the same tense as the active verb. The verb ser is always used in the third person singular or plural. Because the past participle is used as an adjective, it agrees in number and gender with the subject it modifies. es is será will be La cena fue was preparada por Julia. The meal sería would be prepared by Julia. ha sido has been habría sido would have been son are serán will be Las cenas fueron were preparadas por Julia. The meals serían would be prepared by Julia. han sido have been habrían sido would have been SUBSTITUTES FOR THE PASSIVE VOICE “SE” CONSTRUCTIONS 1. Reflexive “se” The reflexive construction with se is often used in Spanish as a substitute for the passive voice when the subject is inanimate and the agent is not specified. The verb is used in the third person singular or plural depending on the subject. Example El banco se cierra a las seis de la tarde. The bank is closed at 6:00 p.m. Las tiendas se cierran a las diez de la noche. The stores are closed at 10:00 p.m. 47 2. Impersonal “se” The impersonal se is used as an impersonal subject in Spanish as a substitute for the passive voice. It is equivalent to the English impersonal ‘one’ or the colloquial ‘you’. In Spanish it is frequently used in impersonal sentences implying orders, regulations, or advertisements. Example Se habla español aquí. Spanish spoken here. Se venden boletos aquí. Tickets sold here. “THEY” CONSTRUCTION The third person plural in Spanish may also be used as a substitute for the passive voice. In Spanish, it is not assumed that the verb refers to the subject “ellos/ellas”. In English this may correspond to the passive voice or the impersonal ‘they’. Example Hablan español en esa iglesia. They speak Spanish in that church. Spanish is spoken in that church. Venden boletos aquí. They sell tickets here. Tickets are sold here.