Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020, Exams of Religion

Download Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 and more Exams Religion in PDF only on Docsity! Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 Presented by: NORC at the University of Chicago Tom W. Smith and Benjamin Schapiro M A Y 1 1 , 2 0 2 1 Presented to: Report to the Fetzer Institute Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 i Table of Contents Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1 Data .................................................................................................................... 1 Spirituality and Religiousness Compared ......................................................................................... 2 Trends ................................................................................................................. 2 Comparing Spiritual and Religious Groups from the GSS ................................................................ 3 Comparing Spirituality and Religiousness from the Fetzer SSUS ..................................................... 7 Cross-National Comparisons ......................................................................................................... 10 Summary and Conclusion ................................................................................. 12 Appendix Tables ................................................................................................ 47 Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 2 https://www.gesis.org/en/issp/modules/issp-modules-by-topic/religion/2018/2018-additional-14- countries. Spirituality and Religiousness Compared To measure religious and spiritual identification, a pair of matched items were used. They asked respectively “To what extent do you consider yourself a religious person? Are you very religious, moderately religious, slightly religious, or not religious at all?” and “To what extent do you consider yourself a spiritual person? Are you very spiritual, moderately spiritual, slightly spiritual, or not spiritual at all?” Spiritual and religious were not further defined. These items were crosstabbed to determine a person’s relative self-rating as religious or spiritual. Three categories were produced 1) rates self as more religious than spiritual, 2) rates self as equally religious and spiritual, and 3) rates self as more spiritual than religious. This approach examines spirituality and religiousness in relative perspective, focusing on which orientation is greater among individuals. Trends As Table 1 shows, from 1998 to 2018 there have been major changes in people’s religious vs. spiritual identification. The more religious than spiritual group declined from 16.7% in 1998 to 11.9% in 2018 (- 4.8 percentage points) and those saying they are equally religious and spiritual also decreased from 64.8% to 55.1% (-9.7 points). Rising notably, the more spiritual than religious group climbed from 18.5% to 33.0% (+14.5 points). The gains of the more spiritual than religious group resulted from a weakening of religiousness ratings and a rise in spirituality ratings. Ratings as very or moderately religious dropped by 8.4 points while those very spiritual rose by 7.5 points. The rise in the more spiritual than religious group results from a combination of cohort and period effects. Table 2 looks at changes within and across age groups and cohorts from 1998 to 2018. Age groups are in the rows, years in the columns, and cohorts are along the diagonals. For example, in the upper left corner of the table of those 18-27 years old in 1998, 22.0% were more spiritual than religious and they were also the cohort born in 1970-1979. Looking at 18-27 years olds over time shows that more spiritual than religious rose to 34.2% in 2018 (+12.2 points) and following the 1970-1979 cohort along the diagonal reveals a rise in 2018 to 31.1% (+9.1 points). The cohort effect is demonstrated by each entering cohort having a growing share in the more spiritual than religious group with the 1970-79 cohort starting at 22.0% in 1998, the 1980-89 cohort at 29.6% in 2008, and the 1990-99 cohort at 34.2% in 2018. The period effect shows up in part in the rising % of each cohort being more spiritual Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 3 than religious over time as its members age with the 1970-79 cohort up 9.1 points, 1960-69 up 11.1 points, 1950-59 up 17.0 points, 1940-49 up 7.0 points, and 1930-39 up 5.4 points. The earlier cohorts who were already 48+ in 1998 showed the least change probably because their religious and spiritual identifications were more fixed by that age, but even they did show growth in the more spiritual than religious group. There is some indication that the rise in the more spiritual than religious group may be plateauing. From 1998 to 2008 the annual growth in the more spiritual group was +0.8 percentage points per annum and from 2008 to 2018 it slowed a little to +0.65 points per annum. When the Fetzer survey in 2020 is added to the GSS time series, this group levelled off in 2016-2020 (33.2% in 2016, 33.0% in 2018, and 33.6% in 2020). This occurred largely because the cohort effect that had been an important part of the growth appears to have largely run its course. On the 2018 GSS the size of the more spiritual group did not meaningfully vary among those 18-67, averaging 34.8%, and only declined among older cohorts to 24.1% among those 68-77 and 18.4% among those 78+. On the 2020 Fetzer study there were no notable differences in the share more spiritual among those 18-80, averaging 34.1%, and only those 81+ were notably lower with 17.0% more spiritual (presented later in Table 9). Comparing Spiritual and Religious Groups from the GSS Next, the profile of the more spiritual than religious group is compared to the equally religious and spiritual and more religious than spiritual groups. These inter-group comparisons are done on 1) demographics and politics, 2) religion, 3) science, 4) social welfare programs/policies, 5) altruism, empathy, and volunteering, and 6) psychological well-being. As Table 3 indicates, differences across genders and race/ethnicity are fairly small. 26.5% of men and 30.7% of women were more spiritual than religious (+ 4.2 points). The more spiritual are higher among whites than blacks or others for a difference of (+4.3 points) and non-Hispanics exceed Hispanics in being more spiritual by +4.7 points. Age differences are much more substantial with the more spiritual group being over 30% among those under 48 and falling to less than 15% among those 78+ for a total spread of 20.6 points. This of course largely reflects the cohort differences discussed above. Life cycle and family characteristics show notable differences that largely follow from the age differences. Among those who have had no children, 35.4% are more spiritual and for those with 5+ children only 19.1% are more spiritual for a gulf of 16.3 points. The never married have the highest level of being more spiritual (34.6%) while the widowed have the fewest who are more spiritual (19.9%) for a difference of 14.7 points. On socio-economic status there are small differences on household income with the top third of earners having 31.8% more spiritual and the bottom third with 28.5% for a difference of 3.3 points. Education differentiates much more than income does. Only 20.1% of those without a high school degree are more spiritual compare to 36.7% of those with graduate-level degrees for a difference of 16.6 points. Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 4 The divide is largely between those without a college degree and those with an associate degree or higher. This suggests that a college education tends to encourage more spiritual identity. Geographically, being more spiritual in highest in large metropolitan areas and bicoastal regions. Being more spiritual is highest in central cities and their suburbs peaking at 33.6% in central cities of 250,000 and higher. It is lowest in small towns and open country at 22-23% for a spread of 11.5 points. On region, the more spiritual are most common in the northeast (New England and the Mid-Atlantic) and the west (Mountain and Pacific) at 31-35% and lowest in the South and Midwest at 23-30% for a maximum difference of 12.4 points. Politically, the more spiritual than religious are lower among Republicans and conservatives than among Democrats and liberals. The differences across the partisan and ideological spectrum are quite large. Identifying as more spiritual is highest among Democrats and Independents leaning towards Democrats and lowest among strong Republicans for a spread of 16.9 points. The difference on political ideology is even greater, peaking at over 40% among liberals and extreme liberals and bottoming out at 16.8 % among extreme conservatives for a difference of 27.5 points. As Table 4 shows, the more spiritual than religious group shows a very distinctive profile from the other groups on religious beliefs, behaviors, and identification. First, the more spiritual are much less engaged in organized religion than the others are. Only 66.9% of the more spiritual identify with a religion compared to 85.5% of the equally religious and spiritual and 92.5% of the more religious for a difference of -25.6 points.1 Similarly, only 14.0% attend religious services weekly as opposed to 30.1% of the equals (i.e. those who are equally religious and spiritual) and 29.0% of the more religious for a difference of -16.1 points. Likewise, daily praying is less common among the more spiritual (51.3%) than among the more religious (56.4%) or the equals (61.1%) (a difference of -9.8 points). The smaller difference on praying than on attending religious services is probably because praying is often a personal, unorganized act unlike attending religious services. Among those identifying with a religion, the more spiritual than religious are less likely to say their religious affiliation is strong (36.7%) than are the equals (47.5%) or the more religious (43.7%) for a difference of -10.8 points. In addition, the specific religious identity of the more spiritual than religious leans towards liberal Christian denominations (46.9%) and away from fundamentalist faiths (16.4%).2 In contrast, the equally religious and spiritual and the more religious both tilt in the opposite direction with respectively 27.4% and 21.0% in liberal denominations and 30.1% and 29.2% following fundamentalist denominations. Those orientations in turn mean that the more spiritual than religious are less likely to have engaged in evangelical/fundamentalist actions such as having had a born-again experience (33.0%) or trying to 1 Besides being much more likely to report no religious affiliation, the more spiritual than religious are also more likely than the other groups to identify as Buddhist, Jewish, and some other religions. But the number of cases in these groups is small for all of these groups. 2 Fundamentalist faiths refers to denominations classified as “fundamentalist” rather than “moderate” or “liberal” in Tom W. Smith, "Classifying Protestant Denominations," Review of Religious Research, 31 (March, 1990), 225-245. Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 7 Comparing Spirituality and Religiousness from the Fetzer SSUS While spirituality and religion are only one small component of the GSS, the Fetzer SSUS is an in-depth study of these concepts and focuses on comparing the role of spirituality vs. religion. As a result, a much deeper understanding of these concepts emerges.3 As Table 9 indicates, the demographic and political comparisons from the Fetzer study are similar to those shown in the GSSs.4 More women than men are more spiritual (+6.7 points). Whites are slightly more likely to be in the more spiritual groups than are blacks (+2.3 points) or Hispanics (+4.3 points). Being in the more spiritual group declines with age (-19.7 points), but as indicated above in the discussion of cohorts, the age differences may be diminishing over time. Related to age differences, the never married and those cohabitating outside of marriage have the highest number who are more spiritual and the widowed and separated the least for a spread of 15.9 points. On socio-economic status, those with the top two-thirds of household income have somewhat greater numbers in the more spiritual groups and those in the bottom third the lowest for a difference of (+4.7 points). The educational spread is larger with 27-28% of those with a high school degree or less being more spiritual compared to 37.9% among those with graduate degrees (+10.4 points). Geographically, the more spiritual are greatest in the bi-coastal regions of the Northeast and Pacific/Mountain regions and lowest in the South and Midwest for a spread of 13.7 points. Politically, the variation in the more spiritual group is quite substantial. Only 18.6% of strong Republicans are more spiritual compared to 41.8% of the strong Democrats, but it is independents leaning towards the Democrats who have the most who are more spiritual with 47.0% for a range of +28.4 points. On economic issues the very conservative have the fewest more spiritual (20.6%) and the somewhat and very liberal have the most in the more spiritual group with 46-47% for a spread of (+ 26.6 points). Similarly, on social issues only 21.5% of the very conservative are more spiritual while 51.1% of the very liberal are more spiritual for a difference of +29.6 points. Consistent with the GSS analysis which showed that the more spiritual group was less likely to attend religious services and to identify with a religion, the Fetzer study shows that almost 50% of the more spiritual attend a religious or spiritual service less than once a year and nearly 65% do not consider themselves members of “a spiritual or religious community” (Table 10), much higher rates than the more religious or equally religious and spiritual. Religion represents the more formal, structured, and organized, while spirituality the more informal and personal. 3 For an extensive analysis of the SSUS see Veronica Seltzer, Gillian Gonda, and Mohammed Mohammed, What Does Spirituality Mean to US? Fetzer Institute, 2020 at https://spiritualitystudy.fetzer.org/. 4 The GSS figures cover 1998-2018 and the Fetzer 2020. There are also differences in how many of the variables were measured on the two surveys and the Fetzer study did not include measures for some of the GSS variables. Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 8 All religious-spiritual groups agree that there are substantial differences between religion and spirituality with 62-65% of each group saying that they are either entirely different or more different rather than the same (Table 11). But the more spiritual see the differences as greater than the other groups. Almost 31% indicate that they are entirely different compared to 18% of the more religious and 13% of the equally religious and spiritual. The more spiritual are less likely than the other religious-spiritual groups to both believe in and have frequent interactions with a higher power. While 61.2% of the more religious and 55.8% of the equals are sure that there is a Higher Power, only 47.8% of the more spiritual believe that. As Table 12 indicates, the difference is small for feeling the presence of a higher power (-3.3 points), but much greater for all other interactions with a higher power (-8.4 points for feeling guidance during daily activities, -10.1 points for help in time of need, -10.3 points for feeling love through others, -12.0 points for directly feeling love, -12.0 points for asking for help during daily activities, -15.7 points for desiring to be closer to a higher power). But among the two interactions not involving a higher power, the more spiritual are more likely than the others groups to report frequent experiences. They are slightly more likely to feel thankful for their blessings (+2.4 points) and moderately more likely to feel in touch with the beauty of creation (+8.8 points). As Table 13 shows, the more spiritual report that spirituality is much more likely to be very important than religion is in deciding about right and wrong (+23.2 points), how to act (+22.6 points), and inspiring to “give back to my community” (+14.3 points). For the more religious the opposite pattern emerges with religion exceeding spirituality in deciding about right and wrong (+15.2 points), how to act (+8.8 points), and inspiring to “give back to my community” (+10.2 points). For the equally religious and spiritual there is virtually no difference with spiritually narrowly edging out religion on all three by +0.6 to +1.3 points. Across the three groups the more spiritual are more likely to say that spirituality is very important by a spread of +13.5 points on right and wrong, +13.7 points on actions, and +15.6 points giving back to the community. Clearly, spirituality is a powerful factor in shaping the lives and actions of the more spiritual and much less vital for the other religious-spiritual groups. Table 14 examines engagement in 17 activities for religious and spiritual reasons. Doing these activities for reasons other than religion or spirituality were not to be reported. The more spiritual were the group most likely to have engaged in the following activities for spiritual reasons: yoga, martial arts, or other physical activity (+20.5 points), meditation (+16.9 points), tarot cards and fortune telling (+8.0 points), being in nature (+13.0 points), writing (+15.3 points), honoring or communication with ancestors (+11.4 points), acts of service (+10.6 points), and acts of protest (+10.9 points). The more spiritual were also the most likely to engage in the following activities for religious reasons: yoga, martial arts, or other physical activity, meditation, tarot cards and fortune telling, being in nature, and acts of protest. The more religious were the group most likely to have done the following activities for spiritual reasons: praying, studying religious texts, fasting, attending religious services, and making an offering or donation. They were also the most likely to engage in the following activities for spiritual reasons: Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 9 praying, studying religious texts, reading, fasting, attending religious services, writing, making an offering or donation, acts of service, and religious teaching. The equally religious and spiritual were the most likely to engage in only two activities for spiritual reasons - attending other religious or spiritual groups and religious teaching. For religious reasons they lead on attending other religious or spiritual groups and art. The more spiritual are generally more likely to engage in activities for spiritual rather than for religious reasons. The spiritual edges over religion are especially large for reading (+11.1 points), art (+13.1 points), being in nature (+16.1 points), writing (+13.5 points), and acts of service (+13.0 points). The only activities that were done slightly less for spiritual rather than religious reasons were attending religious services (-1.9 points) and attending other religious or spiritual groups (-0.1 points). Conversely, the more religious usually did activities more for religious than spiritual reasons. Spiritual reasons were a more common motivation only for meditation, tarot cards and fortune telling, and being in nature. For the equally religious and spiritual, the religious and spiritual reasons for engaging were usually very similar, but spirituality eked out often very small leads in 13 of the 17 activities. The activities that are consistently more spiritual (i.e. more often engaged in for spiritual than religious reasons by all groups and highest among the more spiritual group) are meditation, tarot cards/fortune telling, and being in nature. The activities that are consistently more religious (i.e. more often done for religious than spiritual reasons for all groups and highest for other than the more spiritual) are attending religious services and attending other religious or spiritual groups. Tables 15 indicates that over people’s lifetime, spirituality has increased for a plurality of all religious- spiritual groups, led by 53.6% of the more spiritual followed by 43.2% of the more religious, and 40.1% of the equally religious and spiritual. The net gain of spirituality over religiousness is +38.5 points for the more spiritual followed by +10.2 points for the equally religious and spiritual, and +6.8 points for the more religious. The more spiritual led with 81.7% consistently spiritual or gaining in spirituality, followed by the equally religious and spiritual at 66.2% and the more religious at 57.3%. Relatedly, the more spiritual are highest on being consistently non-religious or less religious than previously (68.5%), followed by the equal group at 37.9% and the more religious at 24.7%. This pattern is consistent with the rise of the more spiritual group shown in the GSS trends. As Table 16 shows, spirituality is seen as more important by the more spiritual (45.8% very important), followed by the equal group at 40.5%, and the more religious at 30.9%. The importance of spirituality exceeds the importance of religion by +28.6 points (spiritual very important – religion very important) among the more spiritual, falls behind among the equally religious and spiritual (-3.9 points) and lags even more so among the more religious (-19.8 points). Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 12 Do you agree or disagree with the following: I have my own way of connecting with God without churches or religious services. 1. Strongly agree, 2. Agree, 3. Neither agree nor disagree, 4. Disagree, 5. Strongly disagree It does not mention spirituality, but allows people to indicate a connection to God independent of ties to organized religion. As seen in the GSS and Fetzer SSUS analysis above, a personal connection outside of formal religions is a hallmark of the more spiritual than religious perspective. A limitation of the item is that disagreeing would include the secular who might well have no connection to God and the religious whose only connection to God is through their religion and not via “their own way.” Table 19 shows the % agreeing that they have their own channel to God ranges from 10.5% in South Korea to 82.2% in Nepal (see Table A2 for the full distributions). The US is relatively high at 64.8% which places it 10th highest of the 48 countries. The US is also higher than all of the Western European nations discussed above. They range from 29.4% agreeing in Sweden to 58.1% in Spain and average 45.6% or -19.2 points below the US. This may indicate that an individual, personal connection to God may be part of a sustained spiritual perspective which is more prevalent in the US than in Western Europe. Summary and Conclusion In recent decades, a growing number of Americans indicate that they are more spiritual than religious. This increase comes from a combination of younger generations being more spiritual than older generations (a cohort effect) and an increase in the more spiritual across all cohorts over time (a period effect). These effects come from a combination of people lowering their ratings of religiousness while rising their assessments of spirituality. It is possible that this increase may slow down or even stop as the difference across cohorts has diminished. The growth in spirituality vs. religiousness is also shown by people’s reports that over their life their spirituality has increased more than their religiousness. The most important demographic differences are the greater number more spiritual among younger than older adults due to the cohort effect mentioned above and the larger number in the more spiritual among the college educated. On the political measures of party identification and liberal-conservative ideology, the differences are even greater. This is especially true on political ideology where the more spiritual are highest among liberals and lowest among conservatives. On religious variables, the more spiritual are concentrated among those not identifying with a religion and infrequently attending religious services. The more spiritual are also less likely to pray, but the difference across groups in much smaller than on belonging and attending. This is probably because praying is often an informal and personal act and not primarily a practice of organized religion. The more spiritual also have very different views about God than the other religious-spiritual groups do. Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 13 They are somewhat more likely to be atheists and agnostics and less like to be sure that God exists. They are much more likely than other groups to say “I don't believe in a personal God, but do believe in a Higher Power of some kind.” Similarly, the more spiritual report less connection with God on all measures than the others have. Overall, the more spiritual have a different image of a supreme being than the traditional portrayal of the religious-spiritual groups. But the three religious groups show no differences about believing in an afterlife. The more spiritual are the most pro-science of the religious-spiritual groups. They are both more knowledgeable about science and more favorable towards science. This is consistent with their higher level of education. In particular, when science and religion are pitted against one another, they are the group most likely to take science’s side. The more spiritual are more likely to support pro-social, governmental policies and to be more empathic and altruistic towards individuals. This is consistent with their liberal political leaning, but the differences across the religious-spiritual groups are not large. The groups differ very little on psychological well-being, but the more spiritual are somewhat lonelier than the others. This in part may come from them having less connections than the other religious- spiritual groups have from the fellowship that comes from being members of congregations and attenders of religious services. While religion and spirituality are overlapping transcendental domains, most people in all religious- spiritual groups see these constructs as quite distinct and each as different from the other concept. These differences show up repeatedly across various comparisons. First, the more spiritual are less likely than the other groups to feel a connection to a higher power. Second, the more spiritual see spirituality rather than religion as more important in deciding what is right or wrong, in guiding how they interact with the world, and in inspiring themselves to help their community. The opposite is true for the more religious. Third, the more spiritual are more driven by spirituality than religion to carry out most transcendental activities. Again the more religious have the opposite pattern. Fourth, spirituality is much more important than religion to the more spiritual and they are much more likely to aspire to be more spiritual rather than more religious. The reverse is the case for the more religious. Finally, a similar pattern emerges for what spirituality vs. religion best offers regarding most goals and experiences. Cross-nationally, the US leans towards the spiritual side. In particular, it differentiates itself from other, well-to-do nations in Western Europe in the higher relative importance it gives to spirituality. When it comes to the transcendental, religion represents the more formal, structured, and organized, while spirituality is more informal and personal. In the US spirituality has gained ground over religion. Some see the relative rise of spirituality as religion declines with less belonging to a religion and fewer attending religious services as consistent with secularization theory’s prediction that modernization inevitably undermines a transcendental worldview with spirituality outside of organized religion just a waystation on that path. Others see the relative rise of spirituality as a transformation that is redefining how people understand and interact with the transcendental. Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 14 The informal and personal nature of the emergent spiritual is seen by the secularization theorists as an indication that this development is ephemeral and lacks the capacity to sustain itself. This concern is supported by the fact that it appears to lack elements that have nurtured and perpetuated religion such as a system of intergenerational, family-based religious socialization, bonds created by having a community of congregants, and using both lay and clerical leadership to promote religious teaching and recruit new members. However, the more spiritual than religious are not only notably different from the more religious than spiritual and the equally religious and spiritual, but also have a clear and consistent profile with a coherent worldview that does suggest that they are more than just a group losing faith and rejecting religion on their way to a secular endpoint. Time will tell. Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 17 Table 3. Demographics and Political Identification by Religious/Spiritual Identification Demographics/Political More Religious than Spiritual Equally Relig. and Spiritual More Spiritual than Religious Prob. Men 13.9% 59.6 26.5 Women 11.8% 57.5 30.7 .000 White 12.6% 57.7 29.8 Black 11.9% 62.1 26.0 Other 15.4% 59.0 25.5 .000 Hispanic 14.5 % 59.8 25.7 Not Hispanic 12.1% 57.6 30.4 .000 18-27 15.8% 53.9 30.3 28-37 11.1% 55.4 33.5 38-47 10.7% 58.3 31.0 48-57 11.5% 59.3 29.2 58-67 12.0% 61.1 27.0 68-77 15.5% 64.2 20.3 78-87 20.1% 67.0 12.9 88+ 22.8% 62.5 14.7 .000 Married 12.9% 61.4 25.7 Widowed 16.3% 63.8 19.9 Divorced 11.1% 56.7 32.2 Separated 11.6% 55.4 33.1 Never Married 12.8% 52.6 34.6 .000 No children 12.1% 52.6 35.4 1 11.8% 58.1 30.1 2 12.2% 59.5 28.2 3 13.0% 62.7 24.3 4 15.6% 62.2 22.2 5+ 15.8% 65.0 19.1 .000 Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 18 Demographics/Political More Religious than Spiritual Equally Relig. and Spiritual More Spiritual than Religious Prob. Less than High School 16.9% 63.0 20.1 High School 13.3% 59.7 27.0 Associate Degree 10.7% 56.9 32.4 Bachelor Degree 10.6% 54.7 34.6 Graduate degree 9.8% 53.5 36.7 .000 Household Income Bottom Third 12.9% 58.5 28.5 Household Income Middle Third 12.8% 58.8 28.4 Household Income Top Third 12.0% 56.3 31.8 .000 New England 11.6% 54.9 33.4 Mid-Atlantic 13.4% 55.5 31.1 East North Central 14.3% 58.6 27.2 West North Central 11.5% 58.3 30.2 South Atlantic 13.4% 60.2 26.4 East South Central 11.6% 65.8 22.6 West South Central 14.1% 63.0 22.9 Mountain 11.3% 53.6 35.0 Pacific 11.0% 55.6 33.4 .000 Large Central Cities (250,000+) 12.3% 54.1 33.6 Medium Central Cities (50-249,999) 12.4% 58.8 28.8 Suburbs of Large Central Cities 13.3% 55.8 30.8 Suburbs of Medium Central Cities 12.3% 58.6 29.0 Small Cities (10-49,999) 14.9% 60.7 24.4 Towns > 2,000 15.4% 62.4 22.1 Smaller Urban Areas 11.0% 60.6 28.3 Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 19 Demographics/Political More Religious than Spiritual Equally Relig. and Spiritual More Spiritual than Religious Prob. Open Country 13.3% 63.6 23.0 .000 Strong Democrat 10.8% 58.9 30.3 Not Strong Democrat 12.1% 57.7 30.2 Independent, Leaning Democrat 11.1% 51.2 37.6 Independent 12.7% 58.5 28.7 Independent, Leaning Republican 13.3% 59.2 27.6 Not Strong Republican 15.4% 61.9 22.7 Strong Republican 16.4% 62.9 20.7 .000 Extremely Liberal 9.0% 49.9 41.1 Liberal 9.4% 46.3 44.3 Slightly Liberal 10.8% 53.5 35.7 Moderate 13.5% 59.6 26.9 Slightly Conservative 13.5% 61.4 25.1 Conservative 14.3% 63.7 22.0 Extremely Conservative 15.3% 67.9 16.8 .000 Source: General Social Survey, 1998-2018 Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 22 *Words in CAPITALS are instructions to the interviewer that are not part of the question wordings. ** VOLUNTEERED refers to precoded, but unread response categories. Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 23 Table 5. Attitudes towards and Knowledge about Science by Religious/Spiritual Identification Science More Religious than Spiritual Equally Relig. and Spiritual More Spiritual than Religious Prob. Universe started with Big Bang 32.5% 32.5 44.9 .000 Humans evolved from animals 42.9% 42.2 57.5 .000 Great deal of confidence in science 38.0% 38.6 47.2 .000 Spending on science too low 34.9% 37.9 43.6 .000 Agree, government support for science 82.8% 83.5 87.5 .000 Agree, science makes life better 78.1% 79.7 83.0 .463 Disagree, science more harm than good 54.1% 59.8 67.4 .000 Disagree, science changes life too fast 45.2% 47.9 57.7 .000 Disagree, believe too much in science and not enough in feelings and faith 22.5% 26.4 39.8 .000 Disagree, we trust too much in sci. and 33.6% 35.9 47.4 .000 Source: General Social Survey, 1998-2018 Question Wordings: Now, I would like to ask you a few short questions like those you might see on a television game show. For each statement that I read, please tell me if it is true or false. If you don't know or aren't sure, just tell me so, and we will skip to the next question. Remember true, false, or don't know. The universe began with a huge explosion. (Is that true or false?) Human beings, as we know them today, developed from earlier species of animals. (Is that true or false?) I am going to name some institutions in this country. As far as the people running these institutions are concerned, would you say you have a great deal of confidence, only some confidence, or hardly any confidence at all in them? READ EACH ITEM, CODE ONE FOR EACH. REPEAT THE QUESTION, Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 24 OR CATEGORIES, AS NECESSARY. Scientific community 1. A great deal of confidence, 2. Only some confidence, 3. Hardly any confidence at all First I would like to talk with you about some things people think about today. We are faced with many problems in this country, none of which can be solved easily or inexpensively. I'm going to name some of these problems, and for each one I'd like you to tell me whether you think we're spending too much money on it, too little money, or about the right amount. Supporting scientific research Do you strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree? Even if it brings no immediate benefits, scientific research that advances the frontiers of knowledge is necessary and should be supported by the federal government. Science and technology are making our lives, healthier, easier, and more comfortable. Science makes our way of life change too fast. How much do you agree or disagree with each of these statements? 1. Agree strongly, 2. Agree, 3. Neither agree nor disagree, 4. Disagree, 5. Disagree strongly, 6. Can’t choose Overall, modern science does more harm than good. We believe too often in science, and not enough in feelings and faith. We trust too much in science and not enough in religious faith. Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 27 Table 7. Altruism, Empathy, and Volunteering by Religious/Spiritual Identification Altruism, Empathy, and Volunteering More Religious than Spiritual Equally Relig. and Spiritual More Spiritual than Religious Prob. Did volunteer work in past month 30.0 35.3 36.5 .138 Altruistic actions last year scale (mean) 5.1 5.2 5.8 .000 Disagree, do not worry about others 41.1 42.6 48.9 .003 Agree, important to assist the troubled 79.6 80.4 82.1 .010 Disagree, needy take care of selves 23.9 19.2 24.7 .009 Agree, help the less fortunate 89.8 91.2 93.0 .000 Daily, accept others even if do wrong 25.8 31.5 38.1 .030 Daily, feels selfless caring for others 30.8 32.8 37.3 .000 Source: General Social Survey, 1998-2018 Question Wordings: In the past month, did you do any volunteer activity through organizations, that is, donate your time and energy not for pay? Yes, No Altruistic actions scale: During the past 12 months, how often have you done each of the following things: 1. More than once a week, 2. Once a week, 3. Once a month, 4. At least 2 or 3 times in the past year, 5. Once in the past year, or, 6. Not at all in the past year. Donated blood? Given food or money to a homeless person? Returned money to a cashier after getting too much change? Allowed a stranger to go ahead of you in line? Done volunteer work for a charity? Given money to a charity? Offered your seat on a bus or in a public place to a stranger who was standing? Looked after a person's plants, mail, or pets while they were away? Carried a stranger's belongings, like groceries, a suitcase, or shopping bag? Given directions to a stranger? Let someone you didn't know well borrow a item of some value like dishes or tools? Helped someone outside of your household with housework or shopping? Lent quite a bit of money to another person? Spent time talking with someone who was a bit down or depressed? Helped somebody to find a job. The following are things that you may experience in your daily life. Please tell me how often these occur. 1. Many times a day, 2. Every day, 3. Most days, 4. Some days, 5. Once in a while, or 6. Never or almost never? Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 28 I accept others even when they do things I think are wrong. I feel a selfless caring for others. Please tell me whether you strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, or strongly disagree with the following statements: These days people need to look after themselves and not overly worry about others. Personally assisting people in trouble is very important to me. Those in need have to learn to take care of themselves and not depend on others. People should be willing to help others who are less fortunate. Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 29 Table 8. Self-Assessments of Well-being by Religious/Spiritual Identification Well-being More Religious than Spiritual Equally Relig. and Spiritual More Spiritual than Religious Prob. Very happy, general 30.3% 32.6 29.7 .001 Very happy, marital 60.3% 62.8 60.8 .038 Excellent quality of life 18.7% 22.3 20.4 .439 Excellent mental health 22.1% 20.6 19.8 .914 Excellent social life 14.6% 15.3 16.1 .163 Emotional problems, never 32.5% 33.1 26.9 .035 Lack companionship, never 42.4% 52.4 42.8 .013 Felt isolated from others, never 58.6% 61.8 49.3 .005 Felt left out, never 57.9% 59.8 48.7 .012 Source: General Social Survey, 1998-2018 Question Wordings: Taken all together, how would you say things are these days--would you say that you are very happy, pretty happy, or not too happy? Taking things all together, how would you describe your marriage? Would you say that your marriage is very happy, pretty happy, or not too happy? In general, would you say your quality of life is excellent, very good, good, fair, or poor? In general, how would you rate your mental health, including your mood and your ability to think - excellent, very good, good, fair, or poor? In general, how would you rate your satisfaction with your social activities and relationships - excellent, very good, good, fair, or poor? In the past seven days, how often have you been bothered by emotional problems such as feeling anxious, depressed or irritable? 1. Never, 2. Rarely, 3. Sometimes, 4. Often, or 5. Always. The next questions are about how you feel about different aspects of your life. For each one, please indicate how often during the past 4 weeks you have felt that way. How often in the past 4 weeks have you felt that... a. You lack companionship? b. You are isolated from others? c. You are left out? 1. Never, 2. Rarely, 3. Sometimes, 4. Often, or 5. Very often? Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 32 Table 10. Belonging to and Attending Religious or Spiritual Groups and Services More Religious than Spiritual Equally Relig. and Spiritual More Spiritual than Religious Prob. Belongs to Religious/Spiritual Community No 34.9% 50.0% 64.5% .000 Attends Religious or Spiritual Services Less than Once Yearly 17.9% 30.1% 49.6% .000 Which response best describes you? 1) I am not a member of a spiritual or religious community. By community, we mean a group of people who share a similar set of beliefs. 2) I am a member of a spiritual or religious community. By community, we mean a group of people who share a similar set of beliefs. How often, if at all, do you attend church, synagogue, or other religious or spiritual services? Source: Fetzer Study of Spirituality in the United States, 2020 Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 33 Table 11. Comparing Religion and Spirituality More Religious than Spiritual Equally Relig. and Spiritual More Spiritual than Religious Prob. Religious-Spiritual the Same 14.3% 22.2% 8.3% Religious-Spiritual More Similar 19.1 14.0 29.0 Religious-Spiritual More Different 46.5 49.0 31.6 Religious-Spiritual Entirely Different 18.1 13.2 30.8 Missing 0.8 1.7 0.3 .000 Which statement best describes how you think about spirituality and religion? 1) Religion and spirituality are the same 2) Religion and spirituality are more similar than they are different 3) Religion and spirituality are more different than they are similar 4) Religion and spirituality are entirely different Source: Fetzer Study of Spirituality in the United States, 2020 Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 34 Table 12. Frequency of Experiences with a Higher Power or Other Feelings Frequency of Experiences on Most Days or More Often How often do you… More Religious than Spiritual Equally Relig. and Spiritual More Spiritual than Religious Prob. Feel the presence of a higher power 49.7 50.9 47.6 .000 Desire to be closer to a higher power 65.8 56.8 50.1 .000 Ask for help from a higher power in the midst of daily activities 54.9 53.6 42.9 .000 Ask for help from a higher power in times of need 53.8 53.7 43.7 .000 Feel guided by a higher power in the midst of daily activities 47.9 50.0 41.6 .000 Feel a higher power's love for me, directly 54.7 54.1 42.7 .000 Feel a higher power's love for me, through others 45.7 49.9 39.6 .000 Feel touched by the beauty of creation 56.8 61.6 65.6 .000 Feel thankful for my blessings 76.4 76.3 78.7 .000 How often do you [each experience]? 1) Many times a day, 2) Every day, 3) Most days, 4) Some days, 5) Once in a while, 6) Never Source: Fetzer Study of Spirituality in the United States, 2020 Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 37 % Sometimes Engaging in Various Spiritual/Religious Activities More Religious than Spiritual Equally Relig. and Spiritual More Spiritual than Religious Prob. Being in nature Spiritual Activity 72.5 72.0 85.0 .000 Religious Activity 65.9 68.4 68.9 .000 Writing Spiritual Activity 46.8 52.4 62.1 .000 Religious Activity 52.6 50.5 48.6 .000 Honoring or communicating with ancestors Spiritual Activity 35.3 40.3 46.7 .000 Religious Activity 40.2 38.5 40.4 .003 Offering or donation Spiritual Activity 70.6 70.4 69.6 .000 Religious Activity 79.4 70.0 61.6 .000 Acts of service Spiritual Activity 58.2 63.8 68.8 .000 Religious Activity 70.6 64.4 55.8 .000 Acts of protest Spiritual Activity 13.8 16.1 24.7 .000 Religious Activity 17.5 15.4 19.8 .007 Teaching in a religious or spiritual setting Spiritual Activity 28.2 29.4 21.8 .000 Religious Activity 35.4 29.1 19.6 .000 Question Wordings: How often do you engage in the following as spiritual activities? How often do you engage in the following as religious activities? Source: Fetzer Study of Spirituality in the United States, 2020 Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 38 Table 15. Changes in Religiousness and Spirituality Please indicate which of the following best describes you: More Religious than Spiritual Equally Relig. and Spiritual More Spiritual than Religious Prob. I have consistently identified as spiritual throughout my life 14.1% 26.1% 28.1% I identify as more spiritual now than in my past 43.2 40.1 53.6 I identify as less spiritual now than in my past 18.6 16.5 11.3 I have consistently identified as someone who is not spiritual 22.2 16.5 6.1 Missing 1.9 0.9 0.9 .000 I have consistently identified as religious throughout my life 38.0% 31.6% 15.9% I identify as more religious now than in my past 36.4 29.9 15.1 I identify as less religious now than in my past 19.4 23.1 41.4 I have consistently identified as someone who is not religious 5.3 14.8 27.1 Missing 1.0 0.7 0.5 .000 Source: Fetzer Study of Spirituality in the United States, 2020 Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 39 Table 16. Importance of Religion and Spirituality and Religious and Spiritual Aspiration More Religious than Spiritual Equally Relig. and Spiritual More Spiritual than Religious Prob. How important to you is spirituality in your life? Very Important 30.9% 40.5% 45.8% Somewhat Important 22.0 27.1 30.7 Neither Important nor Unimportant 22.0 13.2 13.5 Somewhat Unimportant 11.0 4.3 7.8 Very Unimportant 12.7 14.7 1.9 Missing 1.4 0.3 0.3 .000 How important to you is religion in your life? Very Important 50.7% 44.4% 17.2% Somewhat Important 24.9 23.6 21.6 Neither Important nor Unimportant 11.5 11.1 16.9 Somewhat Unimportant 8.9 5.5 14.2 Very Unimportant 0.7 15.3 29.2 Missing 3.3 0.1 0.8 .000 How much do you agree, disagree, or neither agree nor disagree with the following statements? I aspire to be a [more] spiritual person. Strongly agree 22.7% 30.8% 36.0% Agree 23.9 28.0 32.5 Neither agree nor disagree 28.5 19.8 22.8 Disagree 10.0 5.8 5.6 Strongly disagree 14.1 14.7 2.8 Missing 0.7 0.9 0.2 .000 Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 42 More Religious than Spiritual Equally Relig. and Spiritual More Spiritual than Religious Prob. Transformation Spirituality 21.5 22.1 29.5 .000 Religion 26.8 23.1 14.3 .000 Clarity Spirituality 28.5 31.8 39.7 .000 Religion 35.3 30.7 19.0 .000 Transcendence Spirituality 16.3 20.9 31.6 .000 Religion 14.6 16.4 14.5 .286 None Chosen Spirituality 9.1 12.6 4.6 .000 Religion 5.3 15.0 27.5 .000 What words best describe what spirituality offers for you, personally? What words best describe what religion offers for you, personally? Source: Fetzer Study of Spirituality in the United States, 2020 Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 43 Table 18. Cross-national Differences on Being Religious or Spiritual Countries Follow a Religion & a Spiritual Person + Don’t Follow Religion, But Is Spiritual Don’t Follow Religion, But Is Spiritual - Follow a Religion, But Is Not Spiritual Algeria 26.6 -67.1 Austria 35.8 -16.4 Bulgaria 17.7 -39.4 Cambodia 35.6 -62.1 Chile 57.2 + 5.0 Croatia 43.2 -26.5 Czech Republic 33.8 + 2.1 Denmark 31.4 -15.4 Finland 40.9 + 6.7 France 34.0 - 3.9 Georgia 82.8 + 6.0 Germany 31.2 - 7.8 Ghana 71.8 -21.9 Hungary 25.6 -27.9 Iceland 38.3 - 9.3 Indonesia 66.7 -31.2 Israel 43.3 -14.6 Italy 42.4 -26.0 Japan 38.7 +11.7 Jordan 48.1 -50.7 Kenya 74.4 -15.2 Korea (South) 23.2 -28.8 Lithuania 31.0 -45.7 Malawi 89.6 - 2.8 Malaysia 39.0 -51.4 Mongolia 44.0 -13.1 Nepal 74.2 -23.9 New Zealand 53.1 +19.7 Nigeria 65.1 -23.2 Norway 31.4 - 5.1 Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 44 Countries Follow a Religion & a Spiritual Person + Don’t Follow Religion, But Is Spiritual Don’t Follow Religion, But Is Spiritual - Follow a Religion, But Is Not Spiritual The Philippines 70.4 -21.9 Russia 30.9 -19.5 Singapore 39.5 -37.0 Slovakia 29.6 -26.8 Slovenia 43.6 - 1.9 South Africa 56.3 -22.7 Spain 34.1 -16.9 Sri Lanka 57.1 -41.3 Suriname 60.0 -11.8 Sweden 26.4 - 8.8 Switzerland 38.5 -10.8 Taiwan 49.2 -15.2 Thailand 36.6 -55.0 Tunisia 38.3 -55.0 Turkey 63.3 - 6.9 United Kingdom 35.8 - 1.1 United States 66.2 + 0.1 Vietnam 63.2 +27.2 Question Wording: What best describes you? 1. I follow a religion and consider myself to be a spiritual person interested in the sacred or the supernatural. 2. I follow a religion, but don't consider myself to be a spiritual person interested in the sacred or the supernatural. 3. I don't follow a religion, but consider myself to be a spiritual person interested in the sacred or the supernatural. 4. I don't follow a religion and don't consider myself to be a spiritual person interested in the sacred or the supernatural. Source: ISSP/Templeton Religion Trust Religion IV, 2018-20 Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 47 Appendix Tables Table A1: Religious and/or Spiritual Which of these terms best describes you? I follow a religion, I am a spiritual person I follow a religion, I am not a spiritual person I don't follow a religion, I am a spiritual person I don't follow a religion, I am not a spiritual person Total Algeria 24.3% 69.4% 2.3% 4.0% 100.0% Austria 19.3% 32.9% 16.5% 31.3% 100.0% Bulgaria 8.2% 48.9% 9.5% 33.4% 100.0% Cambodia 34.2% 63.5% 1.4% 0.9% 100.0% Chile 25.8% 26.4% 31.4% 16.4% 100.0% Croatia 29.7% 40.0% 13.5% 16.8% 100.0% Czech Republic 13.6% 18.1% 20.2% 48.1% 100.0% Denmark 13.3% 33.5% 18.1% 35.1% 100.0% Finland 13.1% 21.1% 27.8% 38.0% 100.0% France 13.0% 24.9% 21.0% 41.1% 100.0% Georgia 62.6% 14.2% 20.2% 3.0% 100.0% Germany 14.2% 24.8% 17.0% 44.0% 100.0% Ghana 68.6% 25.1% 3.2% 3.2% 100.0% Hungary 15.2% 38.3% 10.4% 36.2% 100.0% Iceland 18.0% 29.6% 20.3% 32.1% 100.0% Indonesia 65.6% 32.3% 1.1% 1.0% 100.0% Israel 26.2% 31.7% 17.1% 25.0% 100.0% Italy 28.6% 39.8% 13.8% 17.8% 100.0% Japan 8.1% 18.9% 30.6% 42.4% 100.0% Jordan 47.4% 51.4% 0.7% 0.5% 100.0% Kenya 66.2% 23.4% 8.2% 2.2% 100.0% Korea (South) 14.3% 37.7% 8.9% 39.1% 100.0% Lithuania 25.4% 51.3% 5.6% 17.7% 100.0% Malawi 84.6% 7.8% 5.0% 2.6% 100.0% Malaysia 34.4% 56.0% 4.6% 4.9% 100.0% Mongolia 22.1% 35.0% 21.9% 21.0% 100.0% Nepal 73.2% 24.9% 1.0% 0.9% 100.0% New Zealand 19.7% 13.7% 33.4% 33.2% 100.0% Nigeria 56.5% 31.8% 8.6% 3.0% 100.0% Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 48 I follow a religion, I am a spiritual person I follow a religion, I am not a spiritual person I don't follow a religion, I am a spiritual person I don't follow a religion, I am not a spiritual person Total Norway 13.5% 23.0% 17.9% 45.6% 100.0% Russia 13.4% 37.0% 17.5% 32.1% 100.0% Singapore 30.9% 45.6% 8.6% 14.8% 100.0% Slovakia 15.5% 40.9% 14.1% 29.4% 100.0% Slovenia 18.7% 26.8% 24.9% 29.6% 100.0% South Africa 47.5% 31.5% 8.8% 12.3% 100.0% Spain 16.6% 34.4% 17.5% 31.5% 100.0% Sri Lanka 56.0% 42.4% 1.1% 0.4% 100.0% Suriname 42.1% 29.7% 17.9% 10.4% 100.0% Sweden 9.4% 25.8% 17.0% 47.8% 100.0% Switzerland 15.8% 33.5% 22.7% 28.0% 100.0% Taiwan 29.8% 34.6% 19.4% 16.2% 100.0% Thailand 31.1% 60.5% 5.5% 2.9% 100.0% The Philippines 65.0% 27.3% 5.4% 2.3% 100.0% Tunisia 33.1% 60.2% 5.2% 1.5% 100.0% Turkey 39.6% 30.6% 23.7% 6.1% 100.0% United Kingdom 15.0% 21.9% 20.8% 42.3% 100.0% United States 45.1% 21.0% 21.1% 12.8% 100.0% Vietnam 24.9% 11.1% 38.3% 25.7% 100.0% Source: ISSP/Templeton Religion Trust Religion IV, 2018-20 Questions Wording: What best describes you? 1. I follow a religion and consider myself to be a spiritual person interested in the sacred or the supernatural. 2. I follow a religion, but don't consider myself to be a spiritual person interested in the sacred or the supernatural. 3. I don't follow a religion, but consider myself to be a spiritual person interested in the sacred or the supernatural. 4. I don't follow a religion and don't consider myself to be a spiritual person interested in the sacred or the supernatural. Spirituality and Religion in the United States, 1998-2020 49 Table A2: Own Way Connecting with God Do you agree or disagree with the following: I have my own way of connecting with God without churches or religious services. Strongly Agree Agree Neither Agree Nor Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree Total Algeria 14.6% 19.2% 14.6% 26.5% 25.0% 100.0% Austria 19.2% 31.1% 15.7% 13.5% 20.5% 100.0% Bulgaria 7.1% 26.2% 24.4% 26.6% 15.8% 100.0% Cambodia 6.6% 18.7% 10.8% 28.5% 35.4% 100.0% Chile 23.7% 42.2% 19.5% 9.9% 4.7% 100.0% Croatia 18.9% 29.8% 24.5% 13.5% 13.2% 100.0% Czech Republic 14.0% 22.0% 19.1% 19.8% 25.1% 100.0% Denmark 15.7% 21.1% 20.0% 6.4% 36.8% 100.0% Finland 13.4% 29.6% 21.3% 13.2% 22.4% 100.0% France 22.4% 26.1% 16.0% 13.8% 21.7% 100.0% Georgia 10.6% 29.3% 16.9% 27.4% 15.9% 100.0% Germany 17.2% 30.9% 15.3% 10.9% 25.7% 100.0% Ghana 38.2% 21.9% 5.8% 11.9% 22.3% 100.0% Hungary 13.0% 24.4% 19.5% 14.6% 28.5% 100.0% Iceland 19.0% 31.7% 22.3% 8.8% 18.3% 100.0% Indonesia 1.4% 14.9% 8.4% 50.6% 24.7% 100.0% Israel 31.5% 34.4% 18.4% 7.4% 8.3% 100.0% Italy 17.3% 39.4% 18.6% 14.9% 9.8% 100.0% Japan 9.8% 16.5% 26.7% 8.4% 38.5% 100.0% Jordan 47.4% 28.4% 4.7% 8.2% 11.2% 100.0% Kenya 43.0% 19.4% 3.5% 14.3% 19.8% 100.0% Korea (South) 4.1% 6.4% 16.3% 18.8% 54.4% 100.0% Lithuania 8.0% 32.6% 35.6% 17.7% 6.1% 100.0% Malawi 57.9% 11.0% 1.4% 4.9% 24.8% 100.0% Malaysia 20.7% 32.7% 7.2% 26.6% 12.8% 100.0% Mongolia 10.6% 15.4% 18.4% 20.6% 35.1% 100.0%