Sport: Definitions, Levels, Materialism, Conformity, Theories, Values, Ethics, Health, Exams of Advanced Education

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SPMT 319 Exam One (New 2024/ 2025 Update) Questions and Verified Answers| Grade A| 100% Correct Sport - Correct Answer-"an institutionalized competitive activity involving two or more opponents and stressing physical exertion by serious competitors who represent or are part of formally organized associations" "a competitive activity involving at least two competitors, requiring physical skill, following formal rules, and occurring within a formal organizational framework What does sport represent? - Correct Answer-represents "well-established, officially governed competitive physical activities in which participants are motivated by internal and external rewards" What are key points from definitions of sport - Correct Answer-Sport is physical in nature Sport involves at least two people Sport involves competition Sport takes place within formally established parameters what are the various levels of sports? - Correct Answer- Informal Organized Corporate Physical activity - Correct Answer-"all bodily movements that cause increases in physical exertion beyond that which occurs during normal activities of daily living" Exercise - Correct Answer-specific form of physical activity in which the individual engages for the purpose of improving fitness, physical performance, or health Prevalence of sport and physical activity - Correct Answer- Represents one of the more popular institutions in American society Interested in examining various issues pertaining to the analysis of sport and physical activity Sport and physical activity are social constructions Consider how sport shapes and influences people's lives and their well-being Also means identifying the issues and controversies prevalent within sport In many ways, sport can be seen as a microcosm of society - Correct Answer-Sport is a window into, or a mirror which reflects, the underlying values, beliefs, and assumptions of a cultural group. Reflected in the way that the values in sport are also seen in society Success in society - Correct Answer-success and excellence as aspects that must be displayed and measured in the constant pursuit of human excellence We value the self-made person, or the individual who has achieved money and status through his or her efforts in a highly competitive system Success in sport - Correct Answer-The focus on competition and success is also seen in sport Oftentimes consider athletes and coaches who fail to win the "big" one as failures Competition in society - Correct Answer-Competition infuses almost all aspects of American society, from the corporate world to schools to the Cub Scouts to our sporting pursuits Competition in sport - Correct Answer-Observed readily in sport—one of the elements that differentiates sport from other activities Can also result in negative outcomes Means to achieve(reach/attain )in society what are the valued means to succeed - Correct Answer- Puritan ideal of hard work Continual striving for excellence Deferred gratification Means to achieve(reach/attain) in sport - Correct Answer- Athletes presumably obtain individual achievements in sport through hard work, perseverance and sacrifice Progress - Correct Answer-going forward to something considered better Progress in society - Correct Answer-American society places paramount importance upon the future. Emphasis to the future and progress, to obtaining a better job, a brighter future, etc. Power of sport to shape values and change - Correct Answer- Sport and its value systems can influence society in both good and bad ways, and sport can be a platform to point to the need for change in society Sport fosters development of social capital --------------------------------- - Social capital is the "features of social organization such as networks, norms, and social trust that can facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit - Bonding vs. bridging social capital Bonding social capital - Correct Answer-Bonding social capital occurs when individuals form relationships w/ similar others (e.g. peers, neighbors), whereas bridging social capital is when relationships and networks are formed with dissimilar others what are 5 ways that science and common sense differ? - Correct Answer-the use of theory systematic and empirical examination alternative explanations Relationships among factors Explanations of observed phenomena the use of theories: Formal vs. lay theories - Correct Answer- Non-scientists commonly use "theories" to explain behaviors, but their theories differ from those scientists employ -- Lay theories are frequently based on unfounded explanations not subjected to scrutiny Scientists on the other hand, systematically build theories, and theories are routinely subjected to scrutiny to determine their merit Systematic and empirical examination Anecdotal evidence vs. empirical data - Correct Answer-Non- scientists test theories in selective fashion and against their own predispositions --- In this case, a supportive anecdote is seen as evidence, while disconfirming evidence is dismissed as an anomaly Scientists, on the other hand, tests predictions and theories in laboratory settings or field research, and their findings are subjected to scrutiny from others Alternative explanations - Correct Answer-Scientists try to rule out factors that can provide alternative explanations of their findings --- They might achieve this through study design (e.g. have a control group and an experimental group) or statically (e.g. by controlling for possible extraneous factors in their analyses) On the other hand, non-scientists will generally accept information in accord w/ their views and dismiss other factors --- For instance, if they believe African Americans are naturally more athletic than whites, they will ignore or dismiss instances where this is not the case Sport and physical activity are seen as parts of this system and serve to bring about positive benefits and change to society a. Sport preserves the status quo b. Often used by people in positions of power to make decisions about sports and sports programs at national and local levels (e.g., organized youth sport, e.g., FOP little league baseball; "Commit to be Fit" programs in major cities) Conflict Theory - Correct Answer-Focuses on the ways that sports are shaped by economic forces and used by powerful people to increase their wealth and influence Rooted in the work of Marx and the assumption that every society is a system of relationships and social arrangements that are shaped by economic factors a. Sports are viewed as tools of the wealthy b. Conflict theorists focus research on class relations or those social processes that center around who has economic power; how this power is used; and who has advantages and disadvantages because of the economic organization of society c. The focus is on the rights and empowerment of the worker or less powerful Critical theories - Correct Answer-Assume the social order in society and sport is negotiated through struggles over ideology, representation, and power; social life is seen as diverse, complex, and sometimes contradictory These group of theories not only focus on societal norms and structures, but also on human agency or the choices people make in how they deal with and respond to the larger social structures and norms types of critical theories - Correct Answer-Hegemony theory Feminist theory Critical race theory Researchers adopting a critical lens frequently employ one of three theories Hegemony theory - Correct Answer-critical theory Draws from conflict theory and focuses on social class and power, while highlighting issues of ideologies and culture The focus is on the steps that the powerful elite (e.g., Whites, males) take to ensure their privilege in maintained/sustained Example: Stadium financing issue in major cities Feminist theory - Correct Answer-People's life experiences in various social contexts are gendered in nature Because girls and women in many societies continue to be devalued and subjugated, there is a need to change the underlying structures and processes in society and sport Example: sport media coverage for women vs. men Critical race theory (CRT) - Correct Answer-Sociological theory Similarity-Attraction Paradigm - Correct Answer-Social psychological theory People who are similar to one another are likely to also be attracted to and express liking toward one another Similarities on visible characteristics, in particular, leads to certain assumptions about commonality Perceptions of likeness lead to greater interpersonal attraction, helping behaviors, and overall affect Example: students in physical activity classes Social ecological theory Physical activity and health theory - Correct Answer- Recognizes that individuals, their social environments, the physical environment in which they live, and policies set at the local, state, and national levels all influence people's attitudes and behaviors Multilevel focus: macro, meso, micro Focus on issues of intervention to impact attitudes and behaviors related to physical activity and health Example: school-based PE interventions Research Methods - Correct Answer-Quantitative research methods Qualitative research methods Mixed-methods research Quantitative research methods - Correct Answer-Information is typically gathered about are large number of people via survey instruments or questionnaires, converted into numerical data, and then statistically analyzed to examine the relationships between variables Qualitative research methods - Correct Answer-Information is typically gathered about a small number of people or a case (e.g., an event, organization) via interviews, observations, or textual analysis, converted into categories and themes to create rich narrative data, or tell an in-depth story of some social phenomenon Mixed-methods research - Correct Answer-Social scientists sometimes borrow tools from both qualitative and quantitative research traditions to address a particular research questions or problem Because sport is a pervasive force in modern society and is viewed with such awe, whatever happens in sport may be considered legitimate and right, at least by impressionable young people who pursue careers in sport and/or sport management - Correct Answer-DeSensi & rosenburg (2003, p. vii) Critical Approach to the Study of Ethics Major assumptions: - Correct Answer-Groups and societies are characterized by shared values and conflicts of interests Informal sport, organized sport, and corporate sport Task of sport ethics is to critically reflect on the phenomenon of sport within its social and cultural setting Sport and physical activity derives much of its meaning from the society of which it is a part, and therefore, must be placed within the ethics and moral values of that context ----- Example: big-time college sport in the USA Forces that Shape Ethical Behavior - Correct Answer-Macro level Meso level Micro level Macro level (societal level) - Correct Answer-Culture of a particular society ------------------------------ Individualism-collectivism binary Massification Commodification Legal system, laws, and governmental regulations -------------------------------- The U.S Constitution Legislation and court decisions sport governing bodies Individualism-collectivism binary - Correct Answer-The individual-collectivism binary is a major dimension of cultural variability that nicely illustrates how the culture of a society can impact the ethical choices of individuals in sport and physical activity contexts 1) The emphasis in individualistic cultures is placed on the individual's goals while in collectivistic cultures, group goals take precedence a) People in individualistic cultures (U.S) emphasize individual success and achievements in jobs and careers, and they tend to approach interpersonal relationships with their own self- interests in mind i) People in collectivist cultures (China) value the well-being of the group and think in terms of "we" -- avoidance of conflict is emphasized culture - Correct Answer-consists of the ways of life that people create as they participate in a group or society society - Correct Answer-a collection of people living in a defined geographic territory and united by a political system and a shared sense of self-identification that distinguishes them from other people Therefore, American culture refers to a society that encompasses traditions, ideals, customs, beliefs, values, arts, and innovations developed both domestically and imported 1) In particular, ideas from European countries such as democracy and capitalism - Correct Answer- Pattern of basic assumptions—invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration— that has worked well enough to be considered valid, and therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relations to those problems (Schein, 1985) Example: organizational culture of diversity vs. organizational culture of similarity Organizational Systems ----------------------------- Governance structures Structures, policies, procedures, and rules in organizations Micro Level (Individual level) - Correct Answer-Personal ethics --------------------------- Set of morals and values that an individual brings into an organization, workplace, or social setting Influenced by family background, upbringing, life experiences, religious beliefs or spiritual background, formal and informal education, and overall moral development Grounded in one or more ethical frameworks -Deontology - Teleology - Virtue ethics Deontology - Correct Answer-A rules-based approach that focuses on obligation and duty, which is similar to the orientation found in the Bible (The Golden Rule) Theories have been termed "ethics of duty" --- b/c they stress that one's moral obligation does not involve consideration of the outcomes of action -- the focus should be on the act itself and doing what is "right" Ex: i) High school basketball Officials use deontology approach to officiating Teleology - Correct Answer-The antithesis (opposite) of deontology in that the focus is on the consequences of one's actions, and whether or not the behavior brings about "good" particularly for the greatest number of people Teleology theories are not necessarily concerned with character or intentions as long as the outcomes of our behaviors and decision-making are good and desirable Ex. i) If an NBA official took this approach if he were to embrace the mentality that the calls should ultimately be predicated upon the outcomes of the games might impact the "success" of the league -- make calls for the superstars Virtue ethics (Existentialism) - Correct Answer-Focuses on the character and authenticity of the individual and how people's decision-making affects them and their personal relationships with others Tremendous growth since the 1970s Health - Correct Answer-A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity Physical Health - Correct Answer-The overall functioning of the human body Mental health - Correct Answer-Self-efficacy and self-esteem, coping with stress, and the ability to think clearly, reason, and function in society Social health - Correct Answer-How individuals interact with others and function as members of a community Muscular Christianity Movement - Correct Answer-19th century movement that rejected the anti-leisure narrative Sport participation seen as tool to develop a balance of physical and spiritual harmony Provided the impetus for the development of public and private parks and recreational sport programs Rooted in the functionalist perspective Critics of health promotion legacy - Correct Answer-Argued sport during the industrial-era reform period was used primarily as a means of social control and for promotion of capitalist ideology Rooted in a conflict perspective and focuses on class relations and issues of gender inequality (i.e., exclusions of females) Benefits of sport and physical activity - Correct Answer- Addressing the "obesity epidemic" Youth sport participation has been found to encourage lifelong physical activity Sport participation has been connected to improved social, emotional, and mental health, as well as decreased risks of engaging in presumed risky health behaviors Criticisms of sport's efficacy to promote positive health outcomes - Correct Answer-Overtraining and injury in competitive sport Overweight and obese participants in some sports Athletes playing "hurt" or "injured" in competitive sport Issues of athlete burnout at various levels of sport Athletes and eating disorders Unhealthy social interactions among participants and fans Risk of poor health is not distributed equally across the social hierarchy of populations - Correct Answer-The poor, racial/ethnic minorities, women, people with disabilities, and Sociological approaches Economics and Sport - Correct Answer-Theory of the leisure class -------------------------------- People communicate their social status to others by their possessions and the ways in which they spend their time Example: golfer with membership at country club Thorsten Veblen's book, The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study of Institutions -- Went beyond the lens of normative economic science in efforts to understand economic behavior in the context of social relations and social class Leisure - Correct Answer-The non-productive consumption of time; individuals have a finite amount of time available during the day, and they typically allocate their time to leisure or labor Leisure class vs. laboring class Conspicuous consumption and conspicuous leisure --- One involves the lavish expenditure on consumer goods or services and the other involves the participation in extensive and visible leisure activities to display social status Commodification of sport/Marxist critiques - Correct Answer- As sport and recreation become increasingly commercialized, there are more opportunities to spend money on sport as a leisure activity Whereas Veblen viewed labor and leisure class relations as one characterized by emulation, Marxist theory views it more as inherently antagonistic ----- The bourgeoisie serves as the ruling capitalist class that controls factors of production, and the proletariat comprises the workers who provide labor for them Commodification involves the transformation of goods, services, or relationships into commodities that are bought and sold in market-oriented exchange --- Play has been transformed into sport (from informal to corporate level) Commodification of sport/Marxist critiques in Major College Sport - Correct Answer-NCAA has been frequently criticized for the commodification of college sport, especially given that its amateur ideals pertains only to the athlete, not the "enterprise" Commodification of sport/Marxist critiques in professional sport - Correct Answer-Labor disputes between players and owners in various sport leagues speaks to the issue of exploitation and alienation Sport as an opiate for the people - Correct Answer-Sport, like religion, can also be used to stabilize the dominant capitalist system and reinforce the social order and hierarchy Entertainment has historically been used to placate and distract people from the unpleasant realities of their condition, and the result was citizens who longed for only "bread and circuses" Political economy/growth coalition theory - Correct Answer- Political economy interrogates economic doctrines to disclose their sociological and political premises entrepreneurs took notice of the growing interest in sport consumption; owners and league officials held majority of power over the limited number of sports and leagues Television generation - Correct Answer-1950 to 1989, during this time television became a commodity found in the majority of consumer households; this allowed sport programs to become specialized Highlight generation - Correct Answer-1990 to present, world evolved into an ever-changing information society; the internet explosion and increase in technological innovation and social media helped to shift power and visibility of various stakeholder groups The Olympics and sport business - Correct Answer-The 1984 Los Angeles games in the aftermath of the 1980 games being boycotted by the USA and other countries, which led to the loss of revenue Peter Ueberroth conducted plan to secure sponsorships for the games; and this served as a blueprint for future games The Olympics and society - Correct Answer-Games have also been used as platform to illuminate societal issues -- 1936 Berlin games and Jesse Owen's challenge to Hitler's Aryan supremacy mentality -- 1968 Mexico City games and Black Power -- 1976 Montreal games and African nations' boycott Environment of international sport business - Correct Answer- Market share and investment in a given sport product are currently measured on a worldwide basis The globalization of sport - Correct Answer-Technology significantly enhanced the ease with which sport marketers or practitioners can introduce and sell products in foreign markets Corporate involvement with international sport - Correct Answer-Sport manufacturers distribute products overseas Companies utilize sponsorship to sell their products in global markets Professional sport franchises and international sport - Correct Answer-Expansion of teams and leagues into various global markets --------------------------------- International broadcasts Licensing and merchandising Exhibition and regular season games and competitions worldwide Economic impact of International sporting events - Correct Answer-Do the financial gains the nation receive outweigh the resources expended to prepare for major event?