Understanding Sports Technology: Motives, Design, and Application in Leisure Sports, Exams of Technology

Download Understanding Sports Technology: Motives, Design, and Application in Leisure Sports and more Exams Technology in PDF only on Docsity! TECHNISCHE UNIVERSITÄT MÜNCHEN Fachgebiet für Sportgeräte und Materialien Enhancing Sport – Sports Technology Design in the Context of Sport Motive, Motion Task and Product Feature Maximilian Müller Vollständiger Abdruck der von der Fakultät für Maschinenwesen der Technischen Universität München zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Doktor-Ingenieurs genehmigten Dissertation. Vorsitzender: Univ.-Prof. Dr. phil. Klaus Bengler Prüfer der Dissertation: 1. Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Veit St. Senner 2. Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Udo Lindemann Die Dissertation wurde am 15.06.2010 bei der Technischen Universität München eingereicht und durch die Fakultät für Maschinenwesen am 12.08.2011 angenommen. Contents 1 Introduction 1 2 Opportunities and challenges in sports technology design 9 2.1 The context of sports technology design 9 2.2 The nature of Sports Technology 18 2.3 A scientific view on sports technology 23 3 Sport motives and product features in a motion context 29 3.1 Sports technology manufacturer view 31 3.2 Sports retailer view 44 3.3 Athlete view 58 3.4 Summary of key aspects in sports technology design 66 4 Interaction of sport motive, motion task and product feature in a sport model 69 4.1 The sport model as a guide in sports technology design 69 4.2 Importance of motivation and emotion in sports technology 78 4.3 Related work on fun experience in sport 87 4.4 Quantification of fun experience in sport 90 4.5 Summary 105 5 Application of the sport model: Design of a training feedback system for skiing 107 5.1 Concerning instances of the sport model 107 5.2 Background and idea behind the Digital Skiing Coach 110 5.3 Motor learning and feedback in skiing 112 5.4 Physical and biomechanical basics of ski turns 120 5.5 Feasibility of sole pressure measurement for training feedback in skiing 125 5.6 Sports technology design: Functionality and prototyping 141 5.7 Effect of feedback training and evaluation of fun experience in skiing 147 5.8 Outlook to the embodiment design of the sensor insole 166 5.9 Summary 167 6 Conclusions and outlook 169 7 References 172 8 Appendix 199 8.1 Additional materials about the context of sports technology 199 8.2 Additional materials on the analysis of sport motives and product features 219 8.3 Additional materials on the quantification of fun experience 234 8.4 Additional information on the application of the sport model 241 Figures Figure 1-1: Sports technology past and present – rack for gymnastics and full-suspension mountain bike. .................................................................................................................... 1 Figure 1-2: Ski with special edges whose effect was not tangible for leisure skiers............................. 4 Figure 1-3: CAD models of a racing bobsleigh (left) and exemplary detail of the measurement cell that was installed to detect the seat forces during downhill................... 4 Figure 1-4: Munich procedural model as a model for problem solving (left, according to Lindemann, 2007) and the general model of the product design process (right, according to VDI 2221, 1993). The outcomes of the present research contribute to the darkened steps in the context of sports technology design. .......................................... 7 Figure 1-5: Structure of this thesis. ....................................................................................................... 8 Figure 2-1: Sport participation rates of the German population according to different social studies (Nagel, 2003, p. 65; Schwier, 2003, p. 18f.; Opaschowski, 200, pp. 61ff; Rittner, 1998), (Wasmer & Haarmann, 2006). The contrary drift of the participation rates in the latest evaluation is a multidimensional social effect which, among other reasons, can be explained by the drift of social states (see text). ................................................................................................................................. 11 Figure 2-2: Sport participation rates of the German population. The rates decrease considerably beginning at approximately 30 years of age (according to Abalin & Süsslin, 2008; Opaschowski, 2002; Mensink, 2003; Wasmer & Haarmann, 2006; Nagel, 2003). .................................................................................................................... 14 Figure 2-3: Major trends in sport. The figure illustrates effects on the design of sports technology. ....................................................................................................................... 17 Figure 2-4: Definition of a function that allows performing turns with alpine skis. ........................... 19 Figure 2-5: Classification of sporting goods and embedment of the term “sports technology” (translated from Ebert, 2010). The application example in this work refers to the design of an information system for skiing. ..................................................................... 20 Figure 2-6: Landscape of sport with constitutional elements. The focus of research is highlighted........................................................................................................................ 22 Figure 2-7: Important aspects in sport technology with ratings (mean value and span) from experts. ............................................................................................................................. 26 Figure 3-1: Evaluation methods used for product design by sports technology manufacturers. ........ 37 Figure 3-2: Focus on product design by sports technology manufacturers. ........................................ 39 Figure 3-3: Importance of product features from the sports technology manufacturers’ point of view.............................................................................................................................. 41 Figure 3-4: Scheme to visualize the retailers’ future target group specification. ............................... 48 related to the relative point of origin of the insoles and were determined with a center of mass calculation on the basis of the single sensor importances. ......................138 Figure 5-17: The reference data was calculated from 26 carved ski turns, performed by three different professional skiers. The ventral-dorsal ratio is a measure for the forward and backward shift of the skiers body’s center of gravity, the outer-inner ski loading ratio indicates the lateral load distribution between the left and right ski and finally, the edging ratio indicates how much load is put on the medial or lateral edges in a ski turn.................................................................................................140 Figure 5-18: Functional structure of the sensor insole. The figure depicts the main functions, corresponding requirements and the interconnections. ...................................................143 Figure 5-19: Components of the prototype system of the Digital Skiing Coach. ................................145 Figure 5-20: Approach for the present study. ......................................................................................148 Figure 5-21: Test plan of the study (left): The experiment included 13 runs for each subject. Between the pre-test and the post-test, all subjects completed training runs on a free slope. Before the training runs, each subject was given both written and visual instructions for technique training. In addition, the experimental group was subjected to audio feedback during skiing. The pre- and post-tests were conducted on a predefined course that was prepared on a marked slope (right). ............149 Figure 5-22: Exemplary visualization as it was presented to the subjects as instruction for the purpose of the training runs. ...........................................................................................151 Figure 5-23 Example calculation for the pre-test phase. The other phases (trainings phases 1 and 2, post-test) were calculated accordingly. ................................................................156 Figure 5-24: Sensor positions in the study setup and zeroing of raw data for the purpose of qualitative analysis of single turns, averaged over all subjects. ....................................157 Figure 5-25: Progress of the average body position of the experimental and control group over all 12 test cycles of the experiment. The curves are drawn with respect to the four phases of the experiment. Values greater than zero indicate a ventral (forward) shift and values smaller than zero indicate a dorsal (backward) shift – with respect to one complete test cycle. The values of the 12 subjects of each sample group were averaged. ......................................................................................................159 Figure 5-26: Qualitative view of the ventral-dorsal body shift and amplitudes of the reference data obtained from professional skiers (left, max. positive amplitude A ≈ 1.0) compared to the results of the experimental group of the study (right, max. positive amplitude A ≈ 1.2 ). The data was offset to the steering phase values for this figure. .......................................................................................................................161 Figure 5-27 Effect of audio training feedback on motor skills. The ventral-dorsal body shifts (amplitudes) for the turn introduction are shown to be more intense in the experimental group after they were subjected to feedback (training-phase 1 and training-phase 2, post-test). .............................................................................................162 Figure 5-28:Mean values of subjective impressions about the effects of the Digital Skiing Coach (DSC) on motor activity (only for experimental group) and regarding possible confounding factors during the experiment. .....................................................163 Figure 5-29: Subjects’ subjective impression regarding the side forces and resulting lateral acceleration in turns during the experiment. ...................................................................164 Figure 5-30: Mean values of subjects’ emotional states during the experiment. .................................165 Figure 5-31: Slim, fully integrated sensor insole package (left) that incorporates a flexible circuit board, including the embedded system and the foil pressure sensors (right). ..... 166 Table 5-15: Results of the statistical analysis of experimental group and control group concerning the improvements of the quality indicator ventral-dorsal body shift from pre-test to post-test. The experimental group did not improve significantly. The control group degraded significantly ........................................................................ 160 Table 5-16: Application of power-saving methods to the sensor insole and their effect on average power consumption and battery lifetime............................................................. 167 1 1 Introduction Why do people exercise? And how can sports technology be designed to enhance and support this activity? A major challenge in the development of sports technology, and the basis for this thesis, is matching desirable emotional experiences in a sports activity to their realization in terms of a specific product design. This thesis presents research that was carried out to enrich the technological approach of product design in the field of leisure sports with the potential to quantify selected aspects of human behavior and motion tasks. In addition, the findings are embedded into practical work by introducing a design example that utilizes engineering and information technology to provide training support for skiers. This introduction provides background on two fields of interest before detailing the specific aims of this thesis. The nature and purpose of sports technology is subject to ongoing renewal processes and expansions. These changes are connected to the embedment of sports technology in the socio-culture of sport and the related emergence of new forms of sports activity because of the increased popularity of leisurely practiced sports. For example, the common expression “sports equipment” may be outdated because of its diversified applications and the related increase in the importance of technology in development. Common outdoor sports, such as skiing or mountain biking, implicitly require a considerably more sophisticated set of sports technology compared to traditional sports such as gymnastics or athletics (Figure 1-1). Several decades ago, sports equipment was considered an opponent to the athlete because of the strict rules of motion. Today, sports technology can be viewed as an extension of the athlete’s body, enabling a fusion of human and object and allowing the spontaneous generation of new movements (Gebauer, Alkemeyer, Boschert, Flick, Schmidt, 2004, pp. 69ff). Figure 1-1: Sports technology past and present – rack for gymnastics and full-suspension mountain bike. 1 Introduction 4 Example 2: A project was designed with the goal to optimize a racing bobsleigh (see Figure 1-3 left). Bobsleighing is considered a very demanding sport in regards to the physical and cognitive strains on the athletes because of the extreme speed in the ice tunnel (around 130 km/h). Therefore, apart from pure performance parameters such as speed, the handling of the bobsleigh, i.e. the response to steering and the damping of the frame, is critical. In accordance with the project initiators, a comprehensive set of measurement tools was installed in a bobsleigh. Sixty-four sensors were installed, at a cost of approximately 25,000 €, to measure the forces on the sleigh’s runners’ axes and other parts of the frame (Figure 1-3 right), and to determine steering angles, steering forces and air resistance. Figure 1-2: Ski with special edges whose effect was not tangible for leisure skiers. Figure 1-3: CAD models of a racing bobsleigh (left) and exemplary detail of the measurement cell that was installed to detect the seat forces during downhill. 5 Following data acquisition, it was found that the athletes were not able to describe how the frame and the other parts of the bobsleigh should be optimized. When asked if it should feel “stiff and rigid” or “soft and smooth”, athletes frequently responded that the sleigh needed to feel “good and fast”. Ultimately, 80% of the acquired data was discarded because it was irrelevant. This illustrates the point that even when sophisticated measurement methods are available, the acquired data is meaningless if specific and objective goals are not carefully determined. A model or idea of the motion task and the specific aims must be determined a priori. Particularly for leisure sports applications, where the users (i.e. the athletes) usually do not have expertise in measurement methods, sports technology must also be intuitive and simple. Example 3: An electronic ski binding was developed to indicate the current adjustments of the binding. The potential benefit of the product was clear, but development costs and the complex, hand-made production process forced the price of the binding to nearly 1,000 € – termed the “Maybach price” in the specialist press. This example illustrates that while electronic systems may have a place in sports technology, market factors must be considered. Therefore, as increasingly advanced products and applications are realized, a thorough financial analysis is critical before introduction to the volume market. In this thesis, sports technology design is studied with an emphasis on the importance of product features and functionality. The role of sports motions and their interdependencies with the user (i.e. the athlete) are further considered. The findings are based on investigations involving two leisure sports: skiing and mountain biking. These specific research projects were selected because of the considerable amount of sports technology involved in these two activities and the consequent potential for product innovation. In particular, the research was aimed at transferring training methods and engineering knowledge from performance sports to leisure sports. Skiing is a sport where a general lack of innovations and a shrinking market in terms of sports technology seemed apparent. Cycling, on the other hand, is a sport that has experienced rapid growth in recent years. These contrary tendencies promised interesting outcomes for research in sports technology design with respect to the different market preconditions. In addition, the clarification and verification of these preconditions were considered in this project. Contributions to three major research topics are made: - Instances of sports technology: The importance of different product features and the peculiarity of the athletes’ sport motives concerning a specific motion task (e.g. skiing) are of interest for the task clarification in product design. To date, this has not been adequately evaluated. - Matching functionality, motion tasks and the athletes’ motivational background: 1 Introduction 6 As illustrated in above examples, not only the comprehension of the coherences between these instances but also the methodical evaluation of single aspects such as the athletes’ emotional state in connection with the used sports technology and with respect to a certain motion pattern (e.g. ski turns) are challenging. To date, a comprehensive model that unifies the different aspects and facilitates its comprehension for specific design tasks has not been established. The dominant motives for participation in leisure sports, such as enjoyment or fun experience, have not been considered for quantification in terms of sports technology design. - Utilization of sensor systems and information technology for training support in leisure sports: Today, the utilization of mechatronic systems for training support is polarized and limited to relatively simple applications (e.g. heart rate monitors). The creation of mechatronic sports technology that provides interpretation of sophisticated motion data in a concise and logical way for training support is a completely new field. However, design of such products must take into consideration the challenges that previous sports technology products have encountered (as discussed above) and comply with athletes’ needs and expectations (e.g. regarding training effectiveness). To pinpoint the contribution of the present research in the process of product design, it is helpful to put it into the context of known procedural models. Some authors and institutions have published procedural models to clarify the problem solving process and the stages of ascertainment in product design. Established models can be found in the elaborations about engineering design (Pahl et al., 2007, pp. 125ff), the V- model for the design of mechatronic systems (VDI 2206, 2004), the general approach in developing and designing (VDI 2221, 1993), the approach towards integrated product design (Ehrlenspiel, 2007), and the approach for the design of technical products (Lindemann, 2007). The outcomes of the present work can be used to clarify input parameters for new designs, for optimization, or for the evaluation and comparison of existing products. Compared to the design of other technological products, the emphasis on the athletes’ (users’) behavioral aspects is of unique importance in the context of sports technology because of the fact that the sports motion task itself is only the path to the end in the utilization of these products. Consequently, physical activity (and related aspects such as safety) represents the purpose of design. The outcomes are then the contributions to the definition of requirements, the assessment of product properties, and the verification of goals in Lindemann’s general problem solving model (which emphasizes the interdependencies and iterations between the instances). Related areas are shaded in Figure 1-4 (left). With respect to a more procedural view according to VDI 2221, the clarification of tasks and functional structures can be supported and verified upon product validation as a functional model or prototype (steps one, two, five and six in Figure 1-4, right). 9 2 Opportunities and challenges in sports technology design Exploration Theory Synthesis VerificationIdea The field of sports technology is as diverse as its underlying discipline sport. Investigations of specific aspects of sports technology design require context and orientation in this field. In this chapter, the subject of sport and major trends in sport will be defined and highlighted. This discussion will include promising research opportunities within the field followed by a survey of experts in related scientific fields that revealed some unsolved core items of interest with respect to the present work. The chapter concludes with a summary of the findings that motivated the research questions addressed in the subsequent sections. 2.1 The context of sports technology design 2.1.1 Definition of sport Reasoning about the interaction of sport and technology requires a definition of the underlying domain – sport – itself. However, the definitions of sport and its context are just as varied as the myriad sports that people play, and currently no commonly accepted definition exists. The major problem in defining sport is that the sport reality, that means what is perceived as sport by the society, is evolving. Hence, the definition of sport always faces the question of whether newer trends and constitutional elements are adequately defined. The comprehensive literature research regarding the definitions of sport conducted for this thesis can be found in Appendix 8.1. The advisory board of the German Sport Association (DSB) specified that sport can be described through its variety, characteristics, aims and goals. Such descriptions can be obtained from the real world of sport (Deutscher Sportbund, 1980, p. 437). On the basis of the DSB announcement, Hägele (1982, pp. 195ff) specified some aspects of sport. Beyond this, sport has a social function as a means of self-realization. Performance and competition should always be related to the individual – it is the experience of performing, not the result itself, that is crucial. With this in mind, beginners are also included in the definition and understanding of sport. This has 2 Opportunities and challenges in sports technology design 10 particular importance for the present work, as it focuses on leisure sports. Hägele’s three level model of sport is characterized by an authentic core level of sports ideals (motoric activity, performance display and meanings of sport such as self-realization and social interrelations), the level “reality of sport” (representing the current position and understanding of sport), and the level of aspects that are excluded from sport. Hägele’s view shows an obvious gap between the ideals of sport and the practiced reality: Which types of activity should be called sport? Is competition a precondition for an activity to be called sport? Heinemann (1998, p. 33) named two specific reasons for the controversy discussion. First, different groups or institutions, for instance, have different viewpoints regarding sport. A walk can be considered sport to one person while sport for another person may be nothing less than training for a marathon. Second, common conceptions of sport are changing with time. The understanding of sport 30 years ago is considerably different from our understanding of sport today. Accordingly, sport as a social construct is created from the field of different contexts in which an activity is defined as sport. These considerations, along with contributions from other authors in the sport and sport technology literature, serve as a basis for defining sport in the context of this thesis. The definition of sport used in this thesis is provided in the term description box above. In addition to defining sport, it is important to establish a description for people who are actively engaged in physical activity. While there appears to be no clear differentiation between the different synonyms used to describe “people participating in sports”, the terms “athlete” and “sportsman” are most frequently applied to describe these individuals. Although “athlete” is commonly used to describe an individual involved in performance sports or a competition, this term is used more widely to define people engaged in physical activity for the purposes of this thesis (see term description box on the right). 2.1.2 Megatrends in sport Sport today is a medium of very diverse socio-cultural importance. Characteristics of sports technology and the constraints and potentials for the design of sports technology can be better understood when considered with respect to the socio- cultural background of their environment of usage. Accordingly, strong trends can be observed at present (Baun, 2004) which demonstrate that the sport phenomenon is undergoing change processes (Table 2-1). General tendencies are further discussed Own definition from literature findings Sport (also: leisure sports) Sport is the nonutile cultural field of body-oriented activities in which humans voluntarily interact with each other or with nature by fair means in exercising their skills or competing to achieve artificial motoric tasks in terms of performance display primarily for reasons of enjoyment or self-realization. Term description Athlete „An athlete is a person who participates regularly in a sport.“ 2.1 The context of sports technology design 11 by other authors (e.g. Nagel, 2003; p. 65, Schwier, 2003; p. 18f., Opaschowski, 2000, pp. 61ff; Rittner, 1998). In the following, the four main statements and corresponding figures will be discussed. Expansion of sports culture: Participation in sport has generally expanded widely in Western societies, specifically in Germany, since the mid-20th century. This trend is often referred to as the expansion of the sports culture. Figure 2-1 illustrates that the proportion of people regularly participates in sports activities in the German society increased by approximately 20 % from 1950 to 2006. Although the absolute numbers may vary Table 2-1 : Megatrends in sport (according to Braun, 2004) Megatrends in sport Macroscopic level (society) Microscopic level (individual) Expansion of sports culture Normality of sports engagements Pluralization of sports culture Individualization of sports engagements Quantitative aspects Qualitative aspects Figure 2-1: Sport participation rates of the German population according to different social studies 1,2,3(Nagel, 2003, p. 65; Schwier, 2003, p. 18f.; Opaschowski, 200, pp. 61ff; Rittner, 1998), 4(Wasmer & Haarmann, 2006). The contrary drift of the participation rates in the latest evaluation is a multidimensional social effect which, among other reasons, can be explained by the drift of social states (see text). 2 Opportunities and challenges in sports technology design 14 participation in sport generally decreases with age. A large decline in sport participation can be observed in the group of 30–39 year-old Germans. This decrease is often associated with individuals accelerating their work force and starting a family which restricts the time available for sport. Information on the social environments or background is necessary for understanding the motivational background of athletes. Perception of the so-called ‘leadership groups’, that are often part of the upper class, is of great importance when analyzing innovations in sports technology. The leadership character of these people implies that they are willing to pay higher prices for newly manufactured premium products to maintain their cutting edge status (Abali & Süsslin, 2008). As such, these people can help introduce new trends and technologies into the market. The ‘leadership groups’ are often seen as role models and are thus observed closely and appeal to many other groups of people, especially to the middle class (Hintemann 2007, p. 93; Flaig 2007; Schulze 1990, p. 419; Schulze 1992). 3 Data base TOP Level: survey among the German population in 2008. 18-64 years. N=4195. People exercising regularly. Data base BAT Freizeit Forschungsinstitut: survey among the German population in 2002. 14 years and older. N=3000. People exercise one or more times a week. Data base Robert-Koch-Institut (RKI): telephone health survey among the German population in 2003. 18 years and older. People exercising two or more hours a week. Data base Statistisches Bundesamt (destatis): Allbus 2004. Part of the German population exercising one or more times a week. Figure 2-2: Sport participation rates of the German population. The rates decrease considerably beginning at approximately 30 years of age (according to Abalin & Süsslin, 2008; Opaschowski, 2002; Mensink, 2003; Wasmer & Haarmann, 2006; Nagel, 2003)3. 2.1 The context of sports technology design 15 Similarly, Abalin and Süsslin present social habits of the “top25” of the German society4, and the results revealed a direct link between a superior social status and sport affinity (see Figure 2-2). Approximately 68 % of the “top25” are interested or very interested in high-quality sports technology and approximately 50 % are willing to pay a higher price for excellent quality (Abali & Süsslin, 2008). Interestigly, new sport environments arise in the traditional middle class (16 % of the German population, 10.2 Mio. people). Gebauer et al. (2004, pp. 87ff) refers to this circumstance as “the bubbling petite bourgeoisie”. This does not, however, indicate that the influence of social status on the extent of participating in sport becomes less important. In fact, the results suggest that the social classes can be characterized by the extent of sport participation rather than by the preference to certain sports (Nagel, 2003, p. 29; Kreckel, 1992, p. 17). More detailed information can be found in the survey “Typologie der Wünsche” (topology of aspiration) in which specific socio- demographic characteristics of the approximately 22 million fitness-oriented people5 in Germany were compared to the average world population (Typologie der Wünsche, 2002). 2.1.4 The change of motion patterns in sport In addition to the general expansion of leisure sports, specifically outdoor sports, new motion patterns in sport have evolved. The so-called trend sports follow a reformation and innovation of the culture of human motion (Schwier, 2003, p. 18). Although these “new” motion patterns (roller skating or similar leisure sports were performed already in the early 20th century) were frequently novel, they were quickly adopted by larger groups of athletes (Breuer & Michels, 2003). For instance, the age group comprised of people “above 50” is increasingly involved in sports such as climbing, mountain biking or inline skating which formerly exclusively attracted people under the age of 20 years. Schwier described three of the most striking changes in motion patterns. First, one of the most notable changes in the motion in sports is a trend towards increased acceleration. For example, the aforementioned outdoor sports are characterized by an increase in pace. Compared to traditional sports, outdoor activities appear agitating because the increase in pace is often combined with vertigo that may create mental states similar to trance (Schwier, 2003, p. 24ff). Another change in motion patterns relates to the accentuation of the perfection of human motion. In this sense, the 4 German population between 18 and 64 years that is assigned to the top 25% of society, i.e. around 13 Mio. people. The group is differentiated by an index calculated by the status of education, income, career and background. 5 Specification of target group: people exercising sport intensively for a minimum of two times a week. People who answered with a rank of 5 or 6 (on a scale from 1 to 6) to the questions “I try to keep myself fit by exercising sport” and “I find it important to do something for my physical and mental wellbeing” (Typologie der Wünsche, 2002). 2 Opportunities and challenges in sports technology design 16 importance of creative examination of motion tasks is emphasized compared to the traditional ideas of performance display and competition. Stranger stated that the “aestheticization plays also a pivotal role in providing an environment in which autotelic activities can be considered meaningful – free from the need for rational justification.” (Stranger, 1999, p. 274). Finally, the emphasis on the extreme is obvious in some sports. Extreme in this context refers to the ambition to test or exceed the body’s limits. This can take place at all skill levels because the concept aims at individual limits of an athlete rather than at absolute records. The appeal of extreme sports have been triggered and fortified by new sports technology. In mountain biking, for instance, the introduction of full suspension bicycles and disc brakes enhanced extreme downhill riding (Trillitzsch, 2001). The desire for adventures of self-experience lead to “thrilling fields” of sports (Hartmann, 1996). It was suggested that sports technology today can be regarded as an extension of the human body used to enhance motion perfection and serve as a stimulation of emotions such as pleasure, tension and thrill (Gehlen, 1993; Gebauer et al., 2004, pp. 69ff). Sports technology enables athletes to carry out new characteristic motion patterns. The fusion of the human body and sports technology is integral to these sports, in contrast to traditional sports where equipment was viewed as the “opponent” (for example, the high bar in gymnastics). 2.1.5 Conclusions for sports technology design The aspects discussed above are critical and relevant to sports technology. Despite similarities between traditional and more recently established sports in terms of the process of industrial realization, the latter show differences in several important ways. The evolution of sport has a direct impact on the range of opportunities for sports technology, as depicted simplistically in Figure 2-3. Social context: Social context refers to the social structure in which sports activities are performed. Despite the fact that organized sports, especially soccer, continue to play an important role in society, organized team sports practiced in sports clubs have become less common. In contrast, individual sports practiced independently or in ad- hoc communities is gaining popularity. Steady coaching of proper motor learning and training principles is rarely provided for newly established sports. This lack of guidelines and principles can be a source of innovation for sports technology. Measurement and information technologies can be combined with specific knowledge about the sport to generate objective learning and training systems (Vossen, 2005). Ideally, these systems could complement basic courses provided by professional instructors with digital advices to facilitate and support self-learning processes. Further, these systems could provide a platform for realizing specific sport motives (Hintemann, 2007, p. 87). The group of people aged 30–60 years accounts for approximately 44% of the overall population, or 36 million people, and is the largest age group in Germany. This is especially interesting because a majority of the 2.2 The nature of Sports Technology 19 predominant design consideration. In leisure sports, on the other hand, other aspects such as optics or shape may play a role as well. The functional aspect in the sense of “purpose-oriented”, however, is a core component. In this work, we call these overall aspects product features. A functional product serves all functions the product was intended to achieve. In the context of engineering design, a function is defined as process-oriented (according to Ponn & Lindemann, 2008, p. 56). According to this definition, functions are concretized in technical realizations of tasks, changing input parameters in a predefined way into output parameters (see term description box). The term “technical” is important because it specifies that color and shape, for instance, are not functional aspects of a product because there is no input and output with a given operation. In alpine skiing, a function can be an operation that allows a skier to perform turns (Figure 2-4). The technical realization of the function manifests in the edges of a ski, carving into the snow during a turn and thus producing the appropriate side force to satisfy physical principles of a ski turn. Hence, functionality is defined by its underlying functions. Ebert provides a suitable concept for assessing functionality of sports technology and states that functionality is the entity of concrete realization of functions in a technical artifact (Ebert, 2010, pp. 28ff). In the present work, sports technology is used as a synonym for equipment that serves one or more of the following basic purposes (basic functions). The purposes are strongly related to the interface between the athlete and the technical object. 1. Enable the sport, i.e. facilitate performance: A sport cannot be performed without the specific piece of sports equipment (e.g. a ski is essential for skiing). This reason can be considered the fundamental purpose which will lead to a specific primary function of a piece of sports equipment. 2. Increase performance: A special feature of a piece of sports technology or the sports technology itself is designed in a way to help increase the performance of the athlete (e.g. special edge shape on a racing ski to increase grip, heart-rate monitor to control training). This always implies a proper interaction between the athlete and the sports equipment and ideally is based on individualized parameters (e.g. ski-length corresponding to body weight, personal fitness parameters). allow turn side forcedownhill force Figure 2-4: Definition of a function that allows performing turns with alpine skis. 2 Opportunities and challenges in sports technology design 20 3. Increase safety: A feature of the piece of sports technology or the sports technology itself is designed to increase the safety of performing a certain sport by using this piece of sports technology. This also implies safety against long-term injuries. Following the function-oriented approach, sports technology is defined as a combination of the abovementioned aspects (see term description box). 2.2.2 Landscape of Sports Technology Once sports technology has been defined as a concept, the specific field of interest must be separated from other areas of sports products. In the broadest sense, the sports market is segmented into the main product groups including sportswear, footwear and sports equipment (Vossen, 2005, p. 52). In this thesis, footwear (climbing shoes, running shoes, etc.) and sportswear (jackets, pants, underwear, etc.) are regarded as sports technology (Figure 2-5). Sports products Sports servicesSporting goods AccessoriesSports Technology Sports Equipment Information systems Sports wear Sports shoes Personal safety equipment Care products Figure 2-5: Classification of sporting goods and embedment of the term “sports technology” (translated from Ebert, 2010). The application example in this work refers to the design of an information system for skiing. Term description Sports technology Sports technology are functional products that generally enable sports (allow performance), enhance the performance of an athlete or increase safety while exercising sports. 2.2 The nature of Sports Technology 21 The field of sports technology also includes sports equipment (skis, bicycles, inline- skates, bars, etc.), personal safety equipment (helmets, back protectors, knee protectors, glasses, etc.), and sports information systems (all electronic devices that provide additional information on vital-, performance-, or training-parameters or other information or electronic systems used for sports purposes). This segmentation follows Ebert’s classification (Ebert, 2010, p. 25). A sporting good is any object used for the purpose of sports while sports technology is equipment that has a functional component with the goal to support sports activity in the previously defined manner. Sports equipment includes objects that are essential for carrying out a certain sport. In a wider sense, this can also include sports facilities. Footwear is equipment worn on an athlete’s foot to facilitate or enhance his capabilities in a particular sport. Sportswear is any covering designed to be worn on a person's body with the purpose to functionally protect or cover the person against environmental influences while exercising sport. Safety equipment is equipment applied to a piece of sports equipment or worn by a person and specifically designed to increase safety and provide protection while exercising sport. Information systems provide information on vital-, performance-, or training-parameters either while exercising or later for analysis (see Figure 2-5). Accessories are products such as personal care products (crèmes, cleaning solutions), bags for MP3 players and similar products. Sports services are services that are provided in the context of sports. Examples of sports services include instruction and event management. 2.2.3 Landscape of Sport In the preceding sections, multi-dimensional aspects of sport and sports technology were presented. A classification of these aspects follows the background information and aims to incorporate and relate participants of the world of sport to each other, and place them into specific thematic contexts. The classification specifies to which thematic fields the present research is attached. Figure 2-6 depicts these coherences and the fields of research of this thesis. The landscape of sport is explained as follows. The core: The core of sport consists of specific rules, motion patterns, techniques, and the range of different sport modes and sport types. A common classification distinguishes the following sports modes: athletics (e.g. running, high-jumping), roll- sports (e.g. cycling, inline-skating), gliding sports (e.g. skiing, short-track), ball- sports (e.g. soccer, basketball), dance sports (e.g. rock’n’roll, break-dance), combative sports (e.g. boxing, karate), water-sports (e.g. swimming, surfing), air- sports (e.g. paragliding), acrobatics and gymnastic, mountaineering, climbing and fitness and strength sports. Sport can also be divided into types of sports emphasizing endurance, strength, coordination, or team or individual aspects. Sport contexts can be defined by a focus on recreation, leisure, performance, competition, or education. 2 Opportunities and challenges in sports technology design 24 aimed at the importance or the degree to which an item applies to a specific sport. The full outline of the questionnaires is given in the Appendix 8.1.2 and 8.1.3. A minimum of two questions were formulated for each question complex. All questions were arranged in random order. A four-step rating scale ranging from ‘very important’ (4) to ‘not relevant’ (1) was used. The following experts participated in the study: Prof. Kristina Shea, Prof. Veit Senner, Prof. Jürgen Beckmann, Dr. Harald Böhm, Dr. Peter Spitzenpfeil, Matthias Blümel, Christoph Ebert, Prof. Michael Krohn, and Dr. Fozzy Moritz. Table 2-2 depicts basic information on the sample group. 2.3.2 Execution and data analysis The first group meeting was held on November 13th, 2006, and the second group meeting was held on May 23rd, 2007. The questionnaires were filled out anonymously by the experts before each of the group meetings. The group meetings were video-taped, and the experts’ core statements were extracted from the video tapes. The results of the questionnaires were evaluated statistically and qualitatively where necessary. Table 2-2: Sample and fields of experts’ expertise Size and respondents Specification N = n = 9 Fields of experts‘ expertise Product development Biomechanics Sports psychology Computer modelling Exercise diagnostics Sports technology Teaching in sport Interaction design Innovation reserach Sample group parameter 2.3 A scientific view on sports technology 25 2.3.3 Results The results of the first questionnaire are summarized with regards to specific focus topics as depicted in Figure 2-7. The second questionnaire contained open questions which were categorized for analysis. The topics shown in Figure 2-7 are further defined as follows. Sport motives refer to possible reasons for people to engage in exercising sport. Product features specify topics of interest for the technical and visual design of sports technology. The topic individual inventiveness refers to the possibility of inventions in sports technology driven by individuals or a group of enthusiasts. Response behavior equipment concerns the mechanical feedback from a piece of sports technology received during sports activity. The topic safety and risk-taking refers to the importance of product safety for the degree of acceptance by the user. Mechatronic accessories refer to the potential of electronics and/or information technologies. It should be mentioned that the statements were reproduced in their original form. Frequently used terms such as “sports equipment” in these statements often refer to the term “sports technology” as it has been defined in this thesis. In the following, the core statements will be presented, followed by a brief discussion. According to the results of the questionnaire, the most important sport motive was fun experience. During the first group meeting, fun was discussed as the main Table 2-3: Initial question complexes for the first questionnaire of the expert survey 2 Opportunities and challenges in sports technology design 26 motivation for leisure sports with the other listed motives creating positive side effects. Therefore, the second group meeting focused on the connection of fun to different product related aspects. The following statements obtained during the second group meeting refer to the role of fun. - “One purpose of sports technology can be to facilitate more “sense” of fun. For instance, learning to ski is easier with carving skis.” - “Sports equipment can make sports more fun for less skilled people, for example with beginner shaped skis, and high end equipment can make sports more fun for highly skilled people, for instance for deep powder skiing.” - “Technology itself can be fascinating and a reason for fun.” - “Fun is the source of sports activity. Fun oriented sports equipment does allow the user many degrees of freedom (skateboard).” - “Mountain bike suspensions, for example, have enabled a much higher state of comfort for a higher downhill speed. Such aspects also contribute to the experience of fun.” - “Equipment should support the mastering of motion tasks and at the same time provide a source for basic safety needs (moderate anxiety as the opponent of curiosity).” Figure 2-7: Important aspects in sport technology with ratings (mean value and span) from experts. 29 3 Sport motives and product features in a motion context Exploration Theory Synthesis VerificationIdea Three interdependent fields of interest were identified from the results of the preliminary study conducted to determine the most important aspects and deficiencies with respect to sports technology (Section 2.3). First, the results suggest that more thorough research into an athletes’ motivational background should be conducted to focus the efforts of an objective evaluation for sports technology design. Second, the attractiveness of a piece of sports technology is defined by its functional, aesthetic, or otherwise valuable product features (Ebert, 2010, p. 31f), and design efforts should focus on meeting customers’ explicit or implicit expectations. In this context, the functionality of a product should be regarded as part of its product features. Furthermore, the survey of experts showed that the implementation of measurement tasks regarding the previously discussed aspects and the interpretation of its outcomes is a recurring issue in research and design. Third, the explanation of motion and the interaction of an athlete with his environment can be a source of product novelties for the field of leisure sports. Motion context must be considered in sports technology design. In addition, opportunities of mechatronic systems in terms of motion support have been addressed as a possible source of innovation. Before research in these areas are initiated, their relative importance must be differentiated and specified. While the main focus of this thesis was the application of sports technology to the sport of skiing, the research also addressed sports technology for mountain biking. By Term description Function Refers to basic functions and trouble free operation of sports technology. Ergonomics Refers to the adjustability of sports technology to the individual body form and anthropometry. Performance Refers to technical performance characteristics of sports technology like weight and stiffness. Optics Refers to colour and shape. Safety Refers to product design against failure and to safe use of the product. Mechatronic Interaction of mechanical and electronical parts of a system together with information technologies. 3 Sport motives and product features in a motion context 30 extending the research to include mountain biking, the results were further validated, and additional areas for future research were identified. Some basic terms regarding product features that were used in conjunction with the surveys are defined in the term description box above. Three groups of people were identified and chosen for interviewing, as discussed below. Sports technology manufacturers: In an environment with very short product life spans (Weck, 2009, p. 11), new products featuring clear benefits to the customer are of utmost importance to sports technology manufacturers. New product designs are initiated by different triggers. Thus, sources and possible obstacles in the development of product novelties were subject of evaluation as well. The mantra “form follows function” (Sullivan 1896) is one of a number of possible principles in product design. The investigations in this thesis aim to determine the importance of different product features in product design. In addition, the goal is to determine factors that trigger design activities. To compare product related aspects to motivational aspects from the manufacturers’ viewpoint, the importance of the athlete having a fun experience while using sports technology needs to be evaluated. Finally, mechatronic sports technology can be a way to introduce completely new functionality to the sports market. It may, however, be subject to a variety of prerequisites. The goal is to identify potentials and prerequisites from the sports technology manufacturers’ point of view. Sports retailers: Sport retailers are directly in touch with the athletes (i.e. consumers). Therefore, it can be expected that their selling experience gives them greater insight into the sport motives of a large percentage of the population, allowing them to act as representatives for the people in regards to sports technology. In general, innovation can only be recognized by innovative products that sell successful. Thus, the sports retailers’ view on product novelties is considered important. The product features specified above cover important aspects of sports technology. The significance of these aspects from the viewpoint of selling and additional aspects of product features should be identified. With respect to characteristics of sports technology, it is useful to investigate important aspects from the sports retailers’ point of view. The opinions and insights of sports retailers may be considered an important source in finding potential application fields and prerequisites with regards to the use of mechatronic systems in sport. Athletes: Product design aims to meet consumers implicit or explicit needs. Therefore, the user’s perspective often reveals insight into their focus product features. In addition, to the view of sports technology manufacturers and sports retailers, the athlete’s self- reflection about sport motives was included in the survey and serves a particularly valuable function when there are inconsistencies in the views of manufacturers and retailers. Furthermore, athletes are the potential customers for innovative sport 3.1 Sports technology manufacturer view 31 products. As such, it is important to identify objections, potentials and prerequisites for mechatronic system design. The corresponding research questions were formulated as follows. 1. What are the motives of people for exercising sport? 2. Who are the main target groups of sports retailers? What are their characteristics and which group is focused on in the future? 3. What are the driving forces and obstacles for product novelties? 4. What is characteristic about sports technology? 5. How is the importance of specific product features valued in different contexts? 6. How is the market potential of mechatronic systems in sports technology valued in different contexts and which are important success factors? 3.1 Sports technology manufacturer view Sports technology manufacturers create sports technology, and hence are interested in the focus and realization of sports technology design. This chapter aims to evaluate the external validity of the findings from research experience and surveys conducted within the scientific field of sport. It clarifies whether the addressed challenges apply to a wider scope of industry representatives and whether there are additional problem fields which were not previously considered. Until now, insight into the practical design work of sports technology manufacturers was limited to selected research projects. The survey conducted as part of this thesis focuses on the research questions posed in the preceding section, and focuses on alpine ski and mountain bike manufacturers. The term sports technology manufacturer is defined in the term description box above. 3.1.1 Literature Little information has been published referring to the design process of sports technology manufacturers. However, there is some information available regarding the role of product novelties which are important success indicators for companies. With regard to the sporting goods sector, Nielsen (1993) reported that only 2.2% of all introduced products are real innovations. More than 45% of all introduced products were identified as so-called “me-too” products, or products designed to be Term description Sports technology manufacturer „A sports technology manufacturer is a company involved in research, design, production and marketing of sports technology .“ 3 Sport motives and product features in a motion context 34 3.1.3 Execution and data analysis Prior to distribution of the online questionnaire via e-mail, the sample group representatives were contacted by telephone to determine their willingness to participate in the study. The representatives were provided with standardized information on the study. The questionnaire was made available online from January the 30th 2008 to July the 1st 2008. 3.1.4 Results What are the apparent motives of people for exercising sports? Both alpine ski and mountain bike manufacturers indicated that it is very important for users of their products to have a fun experience (Table 3-3). What are the driving forces and obstacles for product novelties in sports technology? The initial step in answering this question was to examine the degree of novelty of products as they relate to the results from the following section about driving forces and obstacles for product novelties. Only product design projects that were conducted in 2006 were considered. The degree of novelty, a subjective rating, was rated by the participants of the study. A new product concept was described as a concept that varies significantly from previous products. In terms of their functionality (e.g. regarding function, performance, etc.), optimizing designs were described as modifications to parts of the product or a redesign of a single component. Overall, the ratings given by the alpine ski manufacturers and the mountain bike manufacturers were consistent (range: 1.7 %). Based on available information, approximately one-third of the products produced in 2006 were new products with substantial variations and improvements on older products, and two-thirds were design optimizations based on modifications or redesigns (Table 3-4). Table 3-3: Importance of enjoyable experience from the manufacturers’ point of view Alpine ski, N=12, n=11 (very important: 1, not relevant: 4) Fun experience Type of motive Mountain bike, N=8, n=8 (very important: 1, not relevant: 4)) 3.9 3.7 3.1 Sports technology manufacturer view 35 The survey results showed that spontaneous ideas formed within the companies are the most important driving force for mountain bike manufacturers and the second most important driving force for alpine ski manufacturers in the realization of product novelties (on the left of Table 3-5). Benchmarking also plays a very important role in market and product analysis. For alpine ski manufacturers, benchmarking was shown to be the most important source of ideas, while it was found to be the second most important source for mountain bike manufacturers. In addition, two related sources of ideas were independently identified multiple times by the manufacturers under the “others” category: market observation and trend analysis. Lead users, specifically professional athletes, and customers were also identified as contributing to the process of product novelty creation. Several other driving forces were identified and included factors that typically occur within the design centers such as company specific (own) tests, evolution and experience. In total, the “others” category accounts for approximately one third of new design ideas. Systematic idea generation methods play a minor role in new product idea generation and is applied 19.7 % of the time. Regarding influences that hinder the realization of product novelties (on the right of Table 3-5), the human element is critical in three respects. First, human resources for product design appear to be severely limited in the companies that participated. For mountain bike manufacturers, 100 % of the product novelties were reported to be affected by constraints in the availability of human resources. Second, preventers of innovations, for whatever reason, were also named as a limiting factor. Third, missing internal competence in product design could be solved through cooperation with other companies or research institutes in one sixth of the cases. Investment, which is indispensable for the realization of new product designs, was identified as the most important limiting factor by alpine ski manufacturers. In total, 58.4 % of all participants stated that investments represent a constraint for them. Also, elevated product costs were identified as a constraint under the “others” category. While marketing was not listed as a constraint by alpine ski manufacturers, half of the mountain bike manufacturers surveyed indicated that marketing is a problem when it comes to the introduction of new products. In a related sense, an already existing, wide product range was identified as a hindrance to the proposal and realization of new products. Table 3-4: Type of product novelties produced in 2006, rated by the sports technology manufacturer Alpine ski, N=12, n=11 (% of mentions) New product, real innovation Novelties based on optimization Type of product novelty in 2006 Mountain bike, N=8, n=8 (% of mentions) 32.9 67.1 34.6 65.4 3 Sport motives and product features in a motion context 36 Lack of experience and methods were identified as limiting factors by 25 % of the companies. Mountain bike manufacturers identified these topics as limiting factors in the realization of product novelties twice as often as alpine ski manufacturers. Mountain bike manufacturers did not report a lack of ideas as a hindrance in the realization of product novelties, while it was viewed as a minor problem for alpine ski manufacturers. Conversely, legal restrictions were only reported to be a limiting factor by mountain bike manufacturers, with approximately one third of the companies surveyed reporting constraints because of legal restrictions. Which evaluation methods are used to support the design process of sports technology? Results of the survey shown in Figure 3-1 describe the different evaluation methods used in the design process of sports technology by alpine ski and mountain bike manufacturers. Vertical and horizontal summaries were made with respect to evaluation methods given in the survey and for the product features, respectively. On average, the eight alpine ski manufacturers that responded to the questionnaire use Table 3-5: Driving forces and obstacles for the realization of product novelties from the manufacturers’ viewpoint Driving forces Limiting factors Spontaneous ideas Benchmarking Methods Others: Market observation Trend analysis Own tests Customer meetings Evolution Input from Professionals Experience Human resources66.7 85.7 75.0 57.1 25.0 14.3 25.0 42.9 50.0 100.0 (% of mentions) 66.7 50.0 0.0 50.0 16.6 33.3 16.7 16.7 16.7 0.0 Investments Marketing Experience Lack of methods Legal restrictions Lack of cooperation Lack of ideas Others: Product costs Too many products Defeatists 16.6 33.3 33.3 0.0 33.3 50.0 (% of mentions) Alpine ski manufacturers (n=12) Mountain bike manufacturers (n=6) 3.1 Sports technology manufacturer view 39 How do sports technology manufacturers value the importance of specific product features? A variety of topics were analyzed from the data of the online questionnaire. For reasons of visualization and clarification, the mean values were calculated. They are drawn for all items together with the maximum and minimum value as a measure for the overall answering trend and the maximum span of different opinions (presented as Δ values), respectively. Figure 3-2: Focus on product design by sports technology manufacturers. 3 Sport motives and product features in a motion context 40 Focus on product design by sports technology manufacturers: The participating companies were asked to provide statements about the influence of cost, product features, market adaptations, and technology trends on both new product design and design optimizations. These aspects provide a good impression about the relevance of product features in the environment of other influencing factors of a company. They also allow comparison to the findings about driving forces and obstacles for new designs presented in the preceding section. As depicted in Figure 3-2, a stronger focus in the response categories can be observed for alpine ski manufacturers compared to those of the mountain bike manufacturers. The mean intra-item variances are 1.2 and 1.6 (with mean spans of 0.3 and 1.4), respectively. Both market bases identified the improvement of product features as the most relevant topic. For alpine ski manufacturers, adaptation of products to market influences as well as cost reduction and adaptation to technology trends follow up each other with respect to their importance. As for mountain bike manufacturers, technology trends appear to be more relevant and average “very important”, followed by market influences. Currently, cost reduction is clearly a less urgent topic for mountain bike manufacturers. Importance of function, ergonomics, performance, optics and safety: Generally, very high ratings were given to the importance of product features by both alpine ski and mountain bike manufacturers (Figure 3-3). The mean intra-item variances are 1.3 for the alpine ski sector and 0.4 for the mountain bike sector. Both function and performance were rated “very important” by alpine ski manufacturers, followed closely by the importance of optics. The average rating for safety given by alpine ski manufacturers was “important”, however, the ratings by the individual survey participants ranged widely from “not relevant” to “very important”. Alpine ski manufacturers gave ergonomics the lowest rating of the product features included in the survey, with ratings ranging from “not important” to “important”. Within the mountain bike manufacturers surveyed, performance was rated as the most important product feature with all participants reporting that performance was “very important” for product designs. Function and optics also received an average rating of “very important”; however, several individual manufacturers rated the features as “important”. The average ratings for safety and ergonomics were slightly less than those reported for function and optics. Because of the importance of the outcomes, a plausibility test was conducted. The survey participants were asked to put the different product features in order of relative importance. The results of this additional survey showed that the participants consider performance to be the most important product feature, which is consistent with the findings when each of the sectors was analyzed separately. Similarly, the results showed that the participants all regard ergonomics as the least important product feature. The rankings for function, safety and optics are reordered to optics, function, and safety for the alpine ski sector and function, optics, safety for the mountain bike sector. The outcomes of the separate ratings presented above, 3.1 Sports technology manufacturer view 41 however, do not differ considerably. Interestingly, safety is again ranked as the second least important feature for both alpine ski and mountain bike sectors. How do sports technology manufacturers estimate the potential use of mechatronic components in or as part of sports technology? Reasons for the minimal role of mechatronics in sports technology: First, realization or the integration of mechatronic systems into sports technology is problematic. Several survey participants stated that realization has failed because of a Figure 3-3: Importance of product features from the sports technology manufacturers’ point of view. 3 Sport motives and product features in a motion context 44 3.2 Sports retailer view Sports retailers are the most important link between manufacturers and customers (athlete). Although internet-based distribution and direct selling are increasing, sports shops remain the backbone of sporting goods distribution (Vossen, 2005, pp. 87ff). Because of their face-to-face sales activities and their position between the customer and the sporting good industry, retailers are an important source of information with respect to their view of sport and sports technology. The investigations conducted for this study again focus on alpine skis and mountain bikes. While the newspaper Münstersche Zeitung in the German town of bicycles reported that the “Bicycle sector is booming – 5.2 % gain in sales while total market shrinks” (Berg, 2009), the FOCUS only a couple of months prior had reported that “Skiing was yesterday – ski sector struggles to survive” (Nele Bode & Hinze, 2008). It is likely at least some of the decrease in ski sales was because of poor snow conditions, however, it is unlikely the entire downturn in the ski sector can be attributed to weather conditions. Product sales involve both psychology and knowledge of customers, in addition to knowledge about the products. Previously, only fragments of information could be found in the literature regarding the retailers’ viewpoint on factors that determined the success of products. The study presented here for the first time introduced information regarding the importance of product features, sport motives, and innovation potentials in the context of sports technology design. 3.2.1 State of information A brief overview of the German sports retail market structure is provided to help with understanding the market background. It also served as a basis for selecting the sample group used in this study. Around 11.000 businesses, including bicycle retailers, are engaged in selling sporting goods. The market share of the traditional types of sport shops is approximately 52 % with a slightly falling tendency (Vossen, 2005, p. 7). However, when including fashion and shoe stores, it has been stated that the market share increases to 60.1 % (ifo, 2003, P. 1). The remaining market share consists of discount retailers, mail orders (including web-based ordering) and large warehouse sport outlets. The entire sporting goods store sector was recently subjected to drastic changes when discount vendors and internet-based mail orders gained markets shares from 6.5 % in 2003 to approximately 9 % in 2006, mostly at the expense of traditional sport shops (Vossen, 2005, pp. 84ff). Term description Sports shop and sports retailer „A sports shop is a business focused on specialized trade of sporting goods. It is characterized by a sound sales advice provided by the sports retailers engaged in the shop.“ 3.2 Sports retailer view 45 Unlike traditional sport shops, discount vendors do not provide in-depth guidance on their product stocks. To accomplish this, the vendors do not typically employ knowledgeable staff and are therefore able to increase their profit margin by saving staff appropriations. In addition, most of the products sold at discount vendors are lower priced products that often lack higher quality standards but satisfy functionality expectations. Many examples can be found in the fashion sector, so- called functional sports wear (e.g. outdoor jackets). Recently, hardware products including hiking sticks, bicycle helmets, spotlights, and even mechatronic sports technology such as sports watches, heart-rate monitors and bicycle computers have entered the shelves of discount vendors. The increase in the products available at discount vendors suggests that there is a moderate amount of competition in the market of sports technology. Therefore, traditional sport shops would benefit greatly from the introduction of new technology-based products where their service expertise forms a unique selling point. Thus, the present study focuses mainly on the traditional sport shops as a source of information, supported by information from discount vendors. 3.2.2 Study design, materials and methods Some basic information on the study design, measurement instrument, sample group, and execution of the study will be provided in this section. In chapter 3.2.1, it was discussed that very little information is available regarding the possible involvement of retailers in the design of sports technology. This fact suggests an inductive approach. The study was therefore designed as an explorative, cross-sectional case study with single interviews as the data collection method. The survey was designed as a partly structured interview, meaning all questions were formulated explicitly but not necessarily posed as closed questions (Bortz, 2006, p. 238). The fact that the survey was designed to be receptive to additional information from the interviewee accounts for the explorative character of the study. For the closed questions where a rating scale was required, the following four-step scale categories were used: “very important” (4), “important” (3), “not important” (2), “not relevant” (1). The complete outline of the interview can be found in the Appendix 8.2.2. Prior to conducting the interviews, the participants agreed to audio recording, which was accomplished with a digital voice recorder. Table 3-8 summarizes information on the structure of the German sports shop market by the size of shops. Based on the information in the table, the sports shops appear to be predominantly characterized by small- and middle-size businesses, which was also taken into account for the selection of the sample group. Although the presented case study is regarded as an appropriate approach to treat the research questions, some considerations about limitations in connection with the selection of the sample group should be discussed. 3 Sport motives and product features in a motion context 46 An attempt was made to locate businesses of different size to increase the variance as much as possible. Because of economic limitations, the interviews could only be conducted in the area of Munich. It should therefore be noted that regional distinctions influence the representativeness of the results. Munich, in contrast to other German cities, is characterized by a stable economical and socio cultural situation and the population is considered to be very involved in sports The retail shops and chain stores chosen for an interview were selected based on personal relationships established through other research projects and then randomly selected based on the size of the shop. All of the stores chosen for an interview agreed to participate in the collaboration and the interviewees held comparable positions within the businesses (see Table 3-9). 3.2.3 Execution and data analysis The interviews were conducted by the author of this thesis, exclusively on-site at the sports shops without further audience, with the exception of retailer one in which the interview was conducted at the central office. The interviewees were first presented with standardized information on the background of the study, given an assurance for the anonymity of the results and the exclusive use for scientific purposes. The participants were then shown different question blocks and asked to provide some items about general business numbers (staff, etc.). Some questions that referred to concepts beyond the scope of this thesis were disregarded. The data analysis included replaying the audio data while making written notes of all statements. Table 3-8: Structure of German sport shops by size (according to Vossen, 2005, p. 7) < 0.5 0.5 - 2.5 Market Share (%) 37 52 Turnover (Mio. EUR) > 2.5 11 Table 3-9: Basic information on the interviewed retailers Retailer 1 Retailer 2 Retailer 3 Retailer 4 Retailer 5 Date of interview Position of interviewee Staff Type of store Alpine ski retailer Mountain bike retailer 2008/07/02 2009/02/13 2009/04/28 2009/02/13 2009/02/13 CEO Head of sales Owner Owner Owner 1300 (overall) 20 (store) 7 (store) 4 (store) 2 (store) X X X X X X 14 stores 14 discount stores Single store Single store Single store 3.2 Sports retailer view 49 ambitious customers who concentrate on a specific sport tend to purchase their equipment from smaller expert stores. In addition, the smaller stores will be able to cater to people requiring individualized products. They will continue to specializing in and develop specific segments because higher margins can be achieved in these areas. No considerable tendency toward specialization or focus was reported for the ski sector. The “under 25 years” group and the so-called “best agers” (50 years and upwards) were identified several times as focus groups while the age group in between was not expressed explicitly as a target. What are the driving forces and obstacles for product novelties in the area of sports technology? Product novelties launched between 2006 and 2008 in the area of alpine skis and mountain bikes were identified as optimizations or modest variations of existing products by all interviewees. The time frame 2006 to 2008 was chosen because product designs that were completed by sports technology manufacturers in 2006 should have been launched within this period. This suggests consistency between this study and the study of sports technology manufacturers presented above. In the ski sector, large demand and the need for market share hinder sustainable innovations. The retailers interviewed indicated that they would expect innovations to occur in the area of ski boots and ski bindings. Many of the redesigned ski models differ only slightly in shape or color, and much less significant in functionality. A general increase in the amount of summer outdoor sports has greatly benefited the mountain bike sector. However, most of the traditional areas of optimization, including frame geometry and weight saving constructions, have been exploited in products intended for the volume market — products that are of great importance to the retailers. Mechatronics in sport for motion and performance analysis was listed by two retailers as a possible source for real innovations. Recent product optimizations, however, have led to a considerable amount of increased demand and product turnover rates. Some important product novelties are given in Table 3-11. Table 3-11: Type of product novelty in the period 2006 to 2008 from the retailers’ point of view Type of product novelty New product, real innovation Novelties based on optimization Retailers‘ view (% of mentions) Examples Carving ski, full suspension for MTB‘s (mid to late ‘90is) Disc brakes for MTB‘s (~’00) Twin tip skis (freeride) Lock out for MTB forks Single speed bicycles Dirt bikes, BMX, freeride bikes 100.0 0.0 3 Sport motives and product features in a motion context 50 The retailers’ overall impression of the driving forces for product novelties was that ideas for innovative products are frequently generated by a relatively small group of people, individual inventors, called enthusiasts, or former professionals. New products are often developed in small start-up companies through a trial-and-error approach, while product optimizations are more frequently made in the research and design departments of large manufacturers. Another source of innnovation is youth scenes were new ideas come about in a game-like environment. The industry eventually absorbs promising new sports trends. A summary of mentions is given in Table 3-12. Rarely, suggestions for product optimization are provided by retailers themselves. An example of a local (German) invention, and a contribution to the mountain biking sector, is the Bergmönch. It is a full suspension downhill scooter designed by two engineering students for use on gravely trails. The inspiration behind the design was for a convenient alternative way to quickly get downhill, but that was also a lightweight, portable device. A leading bicycle manufacturer partnered with the designers and contributed production expertise and marketing power (Figure 3-5). Generally, the most prominent obstacle in the realization of product novelties are the high sales prices during the market launch phase. This fact was noted by all of the survey participants and has several dimensions. First, the Table 3-12: Driving forces and limiting factors concerning product novelties from the sports retailers’ point of view Driving forces Limiting factors + + + Try&error by freak and former professionals + + + Trend scouting by industry + + Systematic design in industry + + Youth scenes + Retailer input - - - High prices for introduction - - - Weak cost performance ratio - - - Concentration on show effects - - Lack of innovation mentality - - Low R&D rates in industry - - Lack of durability - - Lack of functionality - Bad weather conditions - Undervalued distribution - High investments for retailers Figure 3-5: The Bergmönch, an example for youth scene product novelty. 3.2 Sports retailer view 51 bill of materials is usually higher for low production numbers. Second, the cost- performance ratio for products that have recently undergone optimization, such as a redesign or repainting, is often weak, leading to low sales numbers. This is a general problem for the sports equipment (hardware) market where ambitious customers encounter stagnating or even decreasing quality, particularly in the bicycle sector. Proper product pricing is a serious issue in the sports technology market, particular in the ski market where prices have increased nearly 100 % within the last 8 years. Also, the conventional combination of ski and binding types and a general innovation “vacuum” hinders the development in the ski market. One reason for the lack of real innovations in sports technology is the size of the equipment manufacturers. They are mainly small- and middle-size businesses with low rates of investment in research and design. Especially in times of economic stagnation or downturn, when a clear innovative strategy is advisable, visionary product strategies and ongoing investments are rare. In addition, there is no institutionalized information exchange in which manufacturers utilize the retailers’ market experience as input for improvements. What is characteristic about sports technology? The interviewees identified three aspects that are characteristic of sports technology. First, sport is almost always connected to very personal motives. Therefore, a kind of emotional attachment is often formed between users and a piece of sports technology. Athletes often consider personal sports technology as body extension. Such equipment is serviced and cleaned frequently, and less often is considered disposable. There is more necessity for quality and functionality. Some devices are frequently subjected to revision and tuning. Second, the selling process of sports technology usually requires a substantial amount of illustrative, individual support for the customer. Third, sports technology has to be easy to use and highly self- explanatory. How do retailers value the importance of specific product features? A variety of topics were analyzed from the interviews to answer this research question. A summary of the topics covered follows below. The values for the visualization in the figures were calculated in a similar way as presented in chapter 3.1.4. How is the importance of the product features, including function, fun experience, ergonomics, performance, optics and safety, estimated by sports retailers? Figure 3-6 (top) shows the mean values and variances of all product features analyzed for both alpine ski and mountain bike retailers. The mean intra-item variances (the mean standard deviation was not calculated because of the small sample group size) are 1.2 and 0.6 for alpine ski and mountain bike, respectively. The mean values over all product features account for 2.5 and 3.5 (with spans of 2.4 and 1.0) for alpine ski and mountain bike, respectively. The product’s function and safety were rated lower by alpine ski retailers in comparison to mountain bikes 3 Sport motives and product features in a motion context 54 ergonomic features may be neglected. Ski boots often lack correct fit and produce stress and discomfort for the user. How do retailers estimate the potential of mechatronic components in or as part of sports technology? Reasons for the minimal role of mechatronics in sports technology: The potential for mechatronics in the context of sport and sports equipment was generally regarded conservatively, and in some cases was considered controversial. The list of reasons given by the retailers for the limited application of mechatronics in sports technology was headed by the impression that products that include the use of mechatronics appear to lack clear customer benefit. Three out of five interviewees shared this opinion. The responses not only refer to useless product functions, but also allude to the fact that the industry has failed to give simple explanations and reasoning for their mechatronic products. This is directly linked to the problem of products that are too complex. Complex products are typically purchased and used by a relatively small number of experts and technology aficionados. High sales prices are often a result of the heavy investments made into the research and design of the products, as well as from small production numbers at the time of the product launch. On the manufacturing side, the main problems appear to be a lack of know-how and experience to bring together sport and technology. Potentials of mechatronic sports technology: The estimated potential for mechatronic sports technology is variable (Table 3-13). All of the retailer interviewees noted a certain potential, subject to certain conditions. The (smaller) mountain bike retailers shared the opinion that functionality from mechatronic systems in cycling would be limited exclusively to a small number of ambitious users. On the other hand, the two (larger) alpine ski retailers share the opinion that mechatronics do have great potential for mass markets as soon as plausible benefits can be produced for reasonable prices. Retailer one expressed that an expedient application of mechatronic systems in sports could dominate the sports market. However, the challenge is to bring together mechatronic systems and specific sports functionality, and integrate these systems in the self-conception of daily life. Possible functions of mechatronic sports technology: The use of mechatronics in sports technology could be beneficial when applied to the development of supplemental product functions involved with the topic of safety. Avalanche warning systems, automatic ski bindings and active damping systems were proposed as examples that could benefit from the use of mechatronic sports technology. Furthermore, advice and support were indicated as other potential fields for the introduction of new products. Examples of products that could be introduced could include foot pressure measurement analysis for skiing, heart rate monitors, digital advisors and training partners, altimeters, or portable navigation systems. 3.2 Sports retailer view 55 Important specifications of mechatronic sports technology: As shown in Table 3-13, product simplicity and usability were named as prerequisites of mechatronics sports technology by all of the interviewees. Recommended pricing for mechatronic sports technology: There is a consensus among the survey participants that it is almost impossible to reach larger customer groups with a high price strategy. There is also a consensus that a successful market introduction would simply include low- to medium-priced products that have a clear customer benefit. There is a market for higher price products, but it is very limited in terms of achievable sales volume. The lower price segment for mechatronic sports technology starts at around 20 € (e.g. simple bicycle computers such as the Ciclosport CM4.1 for around 18 €) and ranges up to a maximum of approximately 100 €. The most expensive products are currently around 600 € for multifunctional devices (heart rate, altitude, speed, etc.). A good example of a high price strategy is the electronic control unit and binding Neox EBM 412, introduced by the Austrian ski manufacturer Atomic in 2003, which was initially sold Table 3-13: Retailers’ point of view about potentials and limitations of mechatronics in sport Topic Reasons for underpart Potential Possible functions Important specifications Recommended pricing Tendency/ Important facts Customers don‘t see benefit High product price Too complex R&D expenses Lack of know how Customers don‘t know Safety & advice Exercise support Vital parameters Motion analysis Adaption of equipment Good usability Simplicity Self explanatory No hassle with power supply 3 Sport motives and product features in a motion context 56 for over 1000 €. Figure 3-8 depicts both a very low price and an extreme high price product. 3.2.5 Discussion The sports retailers emphasized that they generally concentrate on user groups driven by specific motives and separated by their level of skill, rather than on age-based demographic groups. Fun experience and health were named as the two most important sport motives, followed by the pursuit of health and reaching specific achievements. In the field of bicycles, uses range from sightseeing and leisure activities to amateur sports which can be as demanding as professional sports. For each of these groups, enjoyment has a different meaning. In skiing, very few people focus on the achievement of certain goals. In terms of selling products, this means that sports technology will have to cater to the specific “sports worlds” in which they are being used. The results of the interviews suggested that most of the product novelties developed during the past three years have been based on optimizations. Very few sports technology manufacturers prioritize systematic innovation, and most of the innovations were made by independent inventors which eventually found their way to industrialization by the sport companies’ trend scouting. While some important optimizations were made in the mountain bike sector (for example, suspensions and disc brakes), the ski sector was almost entirely driven by appearance and marginal improvements (for example, twin tip skis for freeriding). The product diversification greatly increased without addressing specific user groups. Another problem with product novelties, especially in the skiing sector, is that the constantly increasing product price level is not absorbed by the market. In addition, the durability and functionality of products remains mostly consistent or even decreases in terms of cost-performance ratio. Figure 3-8: Low- and high-priced products. Bicycle computer Ciclosport CM4.1, about 14 € (left), ski-binding Atomic NEOX EBM412, about 1.000 € (right). 3.3 Athlete view 59 3.3.3 Execution and data analysis Before the questionnaire was posted online, a preliminary test of five independent editors was conducted to assess comprehensibility and to fix faults in the online software. For execution of the questionnaire, an internet link was distributed via e- mail to all potential participants of the sample group as described above. The first survey was available online from June 29th, 2008 to August 13th, 2008. The second survey was available online from December 16th, 2008 to March 10th, 2009. For data analysis, the two response sets were combined. Because of the different sample sizes, weighting factors were used for statistical analysis. Table 3-14: Ski days per year, statements of the sample group Ski days per year N=404, n=268 (% of mentions) ≤ 10 11-20 21-30 31-50 >50 45.9 20.8 14.3 12.3 6.7 Table 3-15: Basic information on the athlete survey and the corresponding sample group Size Age, mean Respondents Return rate Specification N = 479 30.0 y (SD = 10.3) n = 317 66.2 % (of N) Gender f = 37.8 %, m = 62.2 % Sample group parameter 3 Sport motives and product features in a motion context 60 3.3.4 Results Which are motives of people for exercising sport? Three sport motives were rated almost twice as often (80 %) as the rest of the motives. The top three sport motives, in decreasing order of response, were fun experience, achievement of sports goals and wellbeing (Table 3-16). Thrill is the fourth most important motive, followed by socializing and health. Both socializing and health received an almost equal number of approximately 40 % of the mentions. What is characteristic about sports technology? The participants were asked to indicate the three most important characteristics of sports technology. An average, 11.5 % of the participants did not respond to this question. The answers that were received were classified into six categories (Table 3-17). Two-thirds of all answers refer to a specific functionality as the most important characteristic of sports technology. The second most important characteristic identified encompassed a variety of emotional aspects, followed by optics/image and quality. Pricing was not identified as a topic of interest here. Table 3-16: Sport motives of the sample group Sport motives N=404, n=278 (% of mentions) Fun experience Health Wellbeing Achievement Thrill Socializing 88.5 39.7 79.1 85.3 54.3 38.7 7.6 40.3 80 3 2 2 4 40 4 Table 3-17: Categories of characteristics of sports technology named by the athletes Categories of characteristics N=330, n=292 (% of mentions) Functionality Emotions Optics/Image Quality Price Not specified 61.2 11.8 6.7 6.1 2.7 11.5 3.3 Athlete view 61 Many responses referred to aspects that are subject to particular differentiation in the context of sport. Examples of frequently named aspects include lightweight design, optics, robustness and quality. Some of the most striking statements with respect to their uniqueness for sports technology were filtered from the list. Thus, characteristics of sports technology lay in the following: - purpose to facilitate physical exhaustion and comparison of physical performance, - fact that they are motivating with respect to physical activity, - purpose to support the improvement of motor skills in terms of varying motions, - possibility of individualization for different types of bodies, - support and improvement of health, - dynamics of its use in unity with the human body. How do athletes value the importance of specific product features? The question was posed with respect to two aspects: namely the importance of general aspects which are relevant for the purchase of sports technology and the evaluation of the importance of specific product features. Which product related aspects do athletes focus on for purchase decisions? In general, all aspects were rated relatively high by the survey participants. The mean value for all aspects was calculated to be 3.1, which corresponds to a rating of “important”. The mean standard deviation over all items was 0.67 while the span between the mean values of the items was 1.05. Consequently, inter-aspect ratios were given special consideration. The most prominent aspect in the athletes’ rating was quality/durability (rated as “very important” on an average), followed by functionality and the cost to performance ratio (Figure 3-9). Interestingly, the importance of “extroverted” issues such as image and brand were rated lower by comparison to the other aspects, with optics reporting only a slightly higher level of importance. The importance of cutting-edge technology and materials fall between the ratings reported for optics and functionality. 3 Sport motives and product features in a motion context 64 Possible functions and important specifications of mechatronic sports technology: Interestingly, only two possible functions were suggested for mechatronics in sports technology despite the fact that a large percentage of people believe these systems have potential. The answers regarding important specifications were more constructive. They are listed in descending order of mentions in Table 3-18. Generally, functional aspects such as wearability and usability dominated the ranking, while optics, for example, were not included among important aspects. Recommended pricing for mechatronic sports technology: The mean recommended price was in the range that was also suggested by the retailers, although the large standard deviation has to be taken into account. The 100 € to 150 € range is generally regarded as a reasonable pricing for such products. Table 3-18: Overview of current use, potentials and specifications of mechatronic sports technology from the athletes’ point of view Topic N=404, n=288 (% of mentions) Heart rate sensor Integrated MP3 GPS navigation Heating sole Avalanche rescue Watch Bicycle computer Step sensor 58.3 19.1 16.7 8.0 1.7 1.4 1.0 0.3 Use of mechatronics High / very high Important specifications Potential 87.0 Wearability (no restrictions in mobility) Usability (easy to use) Weather proof Low weigth Long battery lifetime Handiness (small form factor) Durability / reliability Shock resistance No dangerous materials Possible functions Measurment of velocity Reliable calorie wastage Recommended pricing (motion feedback system) 123.81 EUR (mean value) 95.06 EUR (standard deviaton) 3.3 Athlete view 65 3.3.5 Discussion The athletes’ motivational background regarding their sports activities is characterized by a strong emphasis on a fun experience, wellbeing and achievement of sports goals. However, motives such as thrill, health and socializing were also named as vital driving forces for sports activity. Based on the results, it appears that athletes do not regard sports technology as directly contributing to their emotional experiences. Approximately 12 % stated that emotional attachment is an important characteristic of sports technology while more than 60 % of the participants believe that functionality to be most important characteristic. Functionality was also considered to be very important with respect to making purchase decisions. In summary, basic product function is by far the most important product feature. In contrast, safety, ergonomics and performance parameters were rated as important, but with considerably lower importance. Surprisingly, optics and image were rated as relevant characteristics by only approximately 6 % of athletes. Inconsistent statements were provided regarding the meaning of product quality. While quality was not regarded as an important characteristic of sports technology, it was rated as crucial with respect to purchase decisions, along with a sound cost to performance ratio. It is remarkable that the athletes’ interest focused on aspects which directly affect the use of sports technology. Underlying technologies or high-tech materials were rated lower. Sports technology is regarded as a means to improve dynamic motor skills in unity with the human body. In this context, the ability to adjust sports technology to individual body measures or other individual parameters is regarded as a core prerequisite. Heart rate monitors were the only largely reported mechatronic sports technology used by the athletes surveyed. However, approximately 17 % of the athletes indicated that they already use GPS navigation in sport. The very low incidence of bicycle computer and watch usage are questionable, particularly considering sources that state higher percentages (Hintemann, 2007). In contradiction to the relatively low reported use of mechatronic sports technology, the athletes stated that it does have a very high potential future use in certain cases. Specific instances where the technology could be employed include the measurement of skiing velocity or reliable calorie monitors. Motion analysis or other more sophisticated applications were not named explicitly. The athletes also indicated that as preconditions, the products should be robust, very easy to use, and not inhibiting during sports activity (with respect to weight, form factor and attachment). In addition, they also stated that pricing should be area of 120 €. 3 Sport motives and product features in a motion context 66 3.4 Summary of key aspects in sports technology design The nature of sport is strongly related to change processes in the social environments in which sport takes place. The contemporary definition of sport that was proposed at the beginning of this thesis accounts for these change processes. It describes sport as an activity that aims to achieve artificial motion tasks primarily for reasons of enjoyment or self-realization. On this basis, different viewpoints were analyzed with respect to characteristics of sport motivation and sports technology for alpine skiing and mountain biking. Because product functionality is implicitly evaluated by the athletes’ perception, these findings should further fit into a concept of systematic design of sports technology. 3.4.1 Key findings The results of the surveys are summarized in Table 3-19. A general trend can be observed towards individualization and outdoor sports, which is also supported by several recent market surveys (Vossen, 2005; Weck, 2009). Individual sports are gaining popularity in the realm of sports activity. The freedom to move, opportunity for spontaneous motion, and fast pace in combination with rotatory motion seem to drive the growth of these activities. Youth cultural sports, such as freeriding, account for the trend towards the extreme. However, elder athletes are becoming more active and have begun to join leisure sports that were formerly limited to younger generations (for example, inline skating and mountain biking). An important sport motive for all age groups is fun experience. Enjoyment of motion is foremost in the fun experience, followed by motives such as achievement of motor skills and sports goals (health, wellbeing, or aspects of social affiliation). Therefore, sports technology can be regarded as an extension of the human body and, in general, should facilitate learning processes and enjoyment of motion. Performance aspects were almost consistently rated as more important than safety aspects by both sports technology manufacturers and athletes. Experts from the scientific community and sports retailers both stated that safety, in various respects, is the most neglected topic and represents a vast field of opportunities for product design. Athletes stated that ergonomics and individualization of sports technology is an important aspect, which was not reflected in manufacturers’ responses. Generally, it was striking that the statements varied considerably concerning the different aspects of investigation. Clearly, market research does not cover athletes’ needs to a satisfying degree concerning the abovementioned topics. Regarding the design of new sports technology, sports retailers stated that they have not observed considerable innovations within the last three years in the alpine ski and mountain biking sectors. The manufacturers indicated that high investment costs are the main obstacle of innovations in new technologies. Interestingly, marketing is not seen as a major barrier in terms of the realization of product novelties. This suggests that marketing budgets are adequate. To an extent, a lack of technical competence accounts for the fact that new product ideas are not realized. Lack of methods, 69 4 Interaction of sport motive, motion task and product feature in a sport model Exploration Theory Synthesis VerificationIdea Some focus areas of research interest in the field of sports technology design were identified in the preceding chapter. Fun experience was identified as the major driving force in leisure sports and should be linked to product features in terms of sports technology design. To date, no approach has been developed that enables a quantitative evaluation of fun experience in the context of sports activity and sports technology. The research presented in the following chapter addresses this problem. To accomplish this, a model that serves to identify, understand and describe the different instances of sport and their interrelations is presented. The instances of sport include specific sport motives that were discussed in the context of a certain sports motion and corresponding sports technology before (chapters 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3), as well as physical, motor and emotional aspects concerning the athlete himself. On the basis of the theory of motivational psychology and state of the art regarding fun experience and its evaluation, a systematic approach is presented which facilitates the quantification of enjoyment and fun in a motion context. It takes into account that in the preceding chapter physical acceleration was outlined as an important element of new leisure sports. 4.1 The sport model as a guide in sports technology design 4.1.1 Background of the sport model Psychology has developed methods to classify and quantify different motives, but the problem of operationalization in the context of sports technology remains unsolved. Which design elements are relevant aspects of motivation in sport? What are possible effects of motivation in sports technology design? How can these effects be quantified? With these questions in mind, a prescriptive model was developed to include the various aspects of the nature of sport in connection with the characteristics of sports technology. To date, no holistic perception has been created that describes the role of sports technology in the complex structure of sports activity. In competitive sports, the design of sports technology can very specifically 4 Interaction of sport motive, motion task and product feature in a sport model 70 address the needs of athletes. The efforts focus on creating the best equipment possible for an individual to be successful in competition. The main objective in the development of sports technology for competitive sports is to increase performance. However, we have seen that the focus in leisure sports is different. In leisure sports, achievement is considered an important motive to the athletes (achievement does not refer simply to the heart rate of an athlete in terms of physical performance). Other features that might contribute to enjoyment of leisure sports include the mastering of motion tasks in terms of motor skills or the use of a very lightweight and handy piece of sports technology. It was shown, however, that the emotional state “fun experience” plays a more dominant role in the context of leisure sports. The sport model aims to describe the commonalities between these aspects, but must also serve to explain the underlying interaction mechanisms. It does not, however, claim integrity in terms of a scientifically validated model. The sport model is a pragmatic approach that originates from the combination of portions of scientific research presented earlier in this thesis. It is consequently a more auxiliary instrument intended to accommodate the findings and hence purely prescriptive. The model is based on investigations of motivational psychology and sports science, and was developed from a leisure sports research perspective with a focus on explaining sports activity and functional aspects of sports technology. The model does not explicitly include other sport and product-related aspects such as aesthetics, which also contribute to the attractiveness of sports technology (Ebert, 2010, pp. 31ff) and sport in general. The model corresponds to the definition of sport presented in the introductory chapter of this thesis. It is limited to the essentials of sport defined in chapter 2.2.3, namely the athlete, the sport environment and sports technology, which act on the basis of the core of sport, consisting of an approved set of rules and a general understanding of the motion task. In the following sections, the instances and functional dependencies of the model will be explained. 4.1.2 Description of the sport model, its entities and instances The sport model consists of two interdependent and complementary entities. The transition between these interconnected entities is smooth, but the concept serves well for a general understanding of sport and the role of sports technology (Figure 4-1). An example based on an excerpt from a typical conversation between rock climbers illustrates this concept: “Today, I was so motivated to master the route. I already had a very good and powerful feeling on Tuesday. The movements are really awesome. On top, with Chris giving me belay and the new rope, I had enough self confidence and kept my mind free to climb the hard moves with the sloppy holds in the middle part. Unfortunately, my shoes slipped off that little ridge on the left two times. Rock was a bit slippery as well that day. But today it was real fun. I checked out my special weapon shoes and everything turned out just perfect!” 4.1 The sport model as a guide in sports technology design 71 It is easy to imagine from the statements above that a variety of aspects can be traced that form a recurring theme for every sport. Because sport is exercised by athletes, the individual is always the initial focus of the activities. Elements such as the challenges of the climbing route (motion task), sports technology (climbing shoes, rope, gear) and the climber’s will to master the route (achievement motive) are accompanied by statements about the activity itself: hard moves, slipping off ridges, powerful feeling, state of mind and enjoyment of moves. Based on this description, the two entities of the sport model, sport context and sports activity, will be explained. The sport context entity: Sport context here contains prerequisites that form the necessary environment and incentive for the execution of a certain sports activity. In a basic sense, motives can be regarded as goals of potential activities. Examples of motives in the context of Figure 4-1: Enhancing sport – the sport model consists of two entities which incorporate different instances. Instances, both in the sport context entity and in the sports activity entity, interact with each other (e.g. the athlete is linked to a piece of sports technology by biomechanical mechanisms). The athlete exercises in an ongoing loop of evaluating the sports activity and the sport context. 4 Interaction of sport motive, motion task and product feature in a sport model 74 The concept of the presented model describes iterative loops enclosing the instances of the sport context and the sports activity. These instances are evaluated and weighted by the individual, both during and following the course of activity. One of the most important mechanisms in exercising sport is learning processes and physical strength training. The model loops are applicable regardless of an athletes’ skill and physical state levels. Beginners start learning basic motion patterns which eventually are subsequently improved and stabilized (Meinel & Schnabel, 2006, pp. 146ff). In the same course, they will improve their physical strength implicitly or by applying systematic training methods. These processes are accounted for in the instances and interaction loops which were described above. A positive effect of enjoyment and fun experience is observed when the particular elements form a synergistic balance. The cyclist, for example, will not feel comfortable on tracks which he is not able to master. Figure 4-2 depicts a modified version of Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) model that serves to explain the mechanism of learning and training in sport. As soon as an individual’s limits are exceeded, the athlete will feel uncomfortable, in danger or insecure, leading to a readjustment of the sport context. For instance, the cyclist will likely choose easier tracks to improve his cycling technique before he faces more sophisticated challenges. The opposite is also true: if the challenges can be mastered too easily, the athlete will be under challenged and likely experience boredom, necessitating an intensification of the challenges. Figure 4-2 also illustrates that at some point, each athlete will reach his individual limit as defined by talent and physical conditions. 4.1.4 Related work and relevance for sports technology design Thus far we have discussed the commonalities between different instances of the sport context and sports activity. The sport model can serve as an abstract guide in sports technology design with respect to the clarification of the design focus. Before considering a design example to demonstrate the benefit of the sport model, a summary of previous systematic approaches for different aspects of sports technology design is presented. Various triggers can inspire sports technology design: we have seen before that ideas often evolve from sport sub-cultures, mostly youth driven. The mountain bike, for example, was invented because Gary Fisher, Joe Breeze and Charles Kelly were frustrated with bicycle road races and began riding 40-year-old cruiser bicycles on the 850m downhill track of Mount Tamalpais, California, in 1973 – just to have fun and to try something new. Another design route is the systematic optimization of existing products and design projects initiated by a sports equipment manufacturer. Indeed, many of the newer trend sports of the last decades began as sub-cultural “spin-offs” and were industrialized to make them accessible on a larger scale – mountain bikes and inline-skates are good examples. Lamprecht et al. (2003) stated that the process of commercialization remains the same, independent from the character of the sport. In established sports, athletes frequently contribute to development. Tinz investigated the role of lead-users for the design of sports 4.1 The sport model as a guide in sports technology design 75 technology in an industrial environment and found that the contribution of athletes to product design occurs primarily in the task clarification and evaluation phases (Tinz, 2007). Sports science and scientific research in sports technology can also represent sources for new or optimized designs. Senner (2001) developed a pool of biomechanical methods, embedded in the systematic design approach of Ehrlenspiel (2007), which can be used in sports technology design. Senner’s approach and the presented methods are particularly applicable when physical interactions between the athlete and a piece of sports technology must be clarified. Odenwald (2006) discussed the applicability of biomechanical and engineering methods in the design process. The biomechanical context is strongly related to the functionality of sports technology. Ebert (2010) defined functionality as an entity of weighted product characteristics and further presented a method which could be used to construct a functionality index for sports technology, facilitating objective evaluation and comparison. Ebert’s model also combines a wider range of aspects as input parameters for product design which was not explicitly discussed before, and can help in quantifying the different instances of the sport model presented in this research once the importance of these instances is clarified. Moritz (2008) has developed an approach which describes how inventions can be categorized. It focuses on the generation of new concepts. In engineering design, a variety of publications are available that support the various phases of product design in terms of systematic approaches: task clarification, conceptual design, embodiment design and evaluation (Ehrlenspiel, 2007; Lindemann, 2007; Ponn & Lindemann, 2007; Pahl et al., 2007; among others). In addition to the technological view, basic literature from the fields of sports science and human science that addresses motion tasks as they relate to learning processes and motor skills (Meinel & Schnabel, 1998) will be reviewed. This will provide support in study design and statistics (Bortz & Döring, 2006; Bühner & Ziegler, 2009) and support the understanding and research in training science (Weineck, 2004). The contributions of motivational psychology to the field of sport will be discussed in detail in subsequent sections. They provide the theoretical basis for the implementation of an approach, aiming for quantification of athletes’ motivation and their impact on sports technology design. The latter has not been addressed in scientific research thus far. Figure 4-3 depicts the contributions of the previously discussed disciplines to the understanding of sport. The following example describes one of the possible paths in the sport model to clarify design tasks. The idea was to develop an additional training accessory that could be attached to stationary spinning-bikes to facilitate dynamic tilting of the spinning-bike. A survey among athletes engaged in cycling and spinning-training revealed that such a device would satisfy a demand for a more realistic sensation of cycling. Dynamic tilting is common in road cycling when the cyclist elevates from 4 Interaction of sport motive, motion task and product feature in a sport model 76 the fixed saddle position to utilize his body weight for additional pedaling power. Figure 4-4 (left) depicts a tilting position on a normal bicycle. The body is shifted opposite to the tilted bicycle to maintain dynamic equilibrium. In contrast, spinning- bikes are stationary and cannot replicate this maneuver. On these spinning bikes, a heavy flywheel (m = 30 kg) is pedaled which supports a smooth pedaling frequency. As a first attempt, a training device was designed that consisted of an additional frame to fix the spinning-bike on a fulcrum slightly elevated from the ground (see Figure 4-4, middle). Motion analysis during testing along with subjective impressions revealed some severe deficiencies (Meier, 2005): - The spinning-bike was unstable. A shaky feeling was observed during cycling. - Because of the high position of the fulcrum, the heavy freewheel produced an immense reset moment which made it nearly impossible to tilt the spinning- bike. This resulted in athletes applying the opposite motion from what was intended, utilizing the complete body weight to shift the bike sideways. - The tilting of the spinning bike caused tedious strain on the arms. In road cycling, minimal effort is needed for the tilting of the bicycle. - Poor physiological cycling was suspected because of pain in the knees. Engineering design Biomechanics Training science Kinematics of human motion Sport scenes Motivation psychology Motives Athlete Motivation & Emotion Motor skills Physical strength Motional task Sports technology Sport motives task Figure 4-3: The sport model in the context of different disciplines which contribute to the understanding of sport and sports technology design approaches. 4.2 Importance of motivation and emotion in sports technology 79 4.2.1 Theoretical background: motivation The term ‘motive’ is one of the central constructs in behavioral psychology, the driving force behind every conscious human action. Therefore, the incitement of sports activity can be explained in the context of motivational psychology. The goal of motivational psychology is the explanation of human behavior concerning the aim, the constancy and the intensity of certain activities. In particular, the differences in behavior of people as well as continuity and change of behavioral aspects are subjects of research (Rheinberg, 2000, pp. 11ff). The main variables of interest are the aspired target state of an activity and the degree of attraction. What motivation means: Motivation is a hypothetical construct. Motivation is not a homogeneous unity and no manifestation of cells in terms of a motivation muscle (Rheinberg 2000, p. 15). In fact, motivation is an abstract term relating to activities of daily living that are goal- oriented. Geen (1994) defined motivation as “referring to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of human behavior”. Generally, most definitions of motivation include the idea of an activating orientation of current situations in daily activities towards goals with positive attributes. It is noteworthy that in classical Person (motive) Motivation (pre-decisional) Behaviour / activity Result Consequences Creation of intention Initiation of intention Deactivation of a intention Volition (post-decisional) Volition (pro active) Motivation (post-action) Planning Acting AssessingDeliberating Assessing 1) Expectation level 2) Subjective activity structure 3) Attraction level Activity-centered attractions Goal-oriented attractions Situation-activity Situation-result Situation (attraction) Feedback (learning) loop Figure 4-6: The cognitive model of motivation (according to Heckhausen, 2006, p. 7 and Rheinberg, 2000, p. 70). Term description Motive Motives are individual and constant personality traits that can be regarded as wirkvalues guiding human action (Schneider & Schmalt, 2000; Kuhl, 2001; Rheinberg, 2004), likewise defined as classes of activity goals that comprise a certain group of objectives (Vroom, 1964; Heckhausen, 1989). 4 Interaction of sport motive, motion task and product feature in a sport model 80 motivational psychology, ‘motivation’ is distinguished from the term ‘motive’ (elements highlighted grey in Figure 4-6). According to Heckhausen and Heckhausen (2006), motives are relatively stable dispositions of the human character and describe the individual importance of a specific set of goals. However, the occurrence of specific motives appears to depend on genetics and early childhood experiences (also Winterbottom, 1958; Meyer, 1973; Trudewind, 1975; Veroff, 1965; Heckhausen & Roelofsen, 1962). Important sport motives: The most important types of motives include achievement motives, social affiliation motives and motives that influence willpower (Heckhausen, 1989; Reiss, 2000). Physical activity and safety motives are also frequently identified as important types. Some specific sport motives are listed in unpublished lecture notes of the University of Salzburg, Austria; others were found in other publications (e.g. Rheinberg, 1989). Gabler and Nagel (2001) and Gabler (2006) list a number of specific sports motives in descending order of importance as follows: fun, enjoyment of motion, wellbeing, relaxation, fitness, health, attractiveness of a sport, open air, physical strain, nature, body, improvement of skills, some motives of social affiliation, competition and thrill. The order of importance of the specific motives listed above agrees well with the results of the surveys presented in chapter 3 (Table 4-1). The similarity between these two independent studies suggests a high degree of validity in the reported importance of these sport motives. How motivation is activated: According to the model depicted in Figure 4-6, an attraction is formed by situational aspects such as motion challenge, the environment and sports technology, resulting in the activation of a motive. For example, a skier facing a deep powder mountain Table 4-1: Comparison of importance of sport motives from the survey conducted as part of this work and a review of available literature Sport motives, own survey Fun experience Health Wellbeing Performance Thrill Socializing Intrinsic pleasure, entertainment Fitness, health Balance, catharsis, relaxation Achievement, success Excitement Social relationships Autonomy, self-determination Self-expression Sport motives, findings from literature 4.2 Importance of motivation and emotion in sports technology 81 side will feel an attraction. At that moment, individual motives develop from latently present situational attractions to the construct motivation, ultimately leading to a certain behavior or activity. The skier may decide to attempt the downhill either for the sense of achievement or simply for enjoyment. Both scenarios will be discussed below. It is evident that the process of motivation must be connected to a control instance of some kind. Heckhausen (2006) accounted for this fact in the enhanced cognitive motivation model and envisioned post-activity evaluation processes (parts highlighted white in Figure 4-6). The evaluation processes are part of the sport motivation model and can act as amplification or attenuation of motivation by reviewing achievement of goals or the memorization of emotional aspects. The Arousal Theory should be briefly discussed because it is an important concept in understanding why people form different individual impressions during a sport experience. Walter (2005) states that the theory distinguishes between extraverted and introverted people based on the level of arousal of the neocortex, a part of the cerebrum. By nature, introverted people are on a higher excitement level than extraverted people. Scientists assume that humans strive for individually comfortable levels of arousal and that an ideal level of excitement leads to a maximum amount of achievement possible in a specified activity. Extraverted people constantly need additional stimulation to obtain their ideal level of arousal and in general are more active and venturesome (Eyseneck, 1976, p. 22). In sport, these people tend to be involved in activities with a higher risk or thrill potential, such as climbing, freeriding or kite-surfing. Distinction of needs and motives: The presented definition of motivation implies voluntary behavior instead of behavior related to reflexes, instincts and other biologically controlled processes. Maslow (1943) was one of the first people to distinguish between “lower” biological or instinctive needs (such as hunger) and “higher” or deliberate needs (such as self- esteem or self-fulfillment) for which the term ‘motive’ is applicable. A clear distinction between deliberate and instinctive behavior, however, is not possible (Rudolph, 2003, p. 5). In developed societies, the lower physiological needs such as hunger and safety are typically satisfied, whereas satisfaction of higher physiological needs such as esteem and self-actualization still require self-controlled and self- determined, namely motivated, activity. This concept of motivated activity seems highly applicable when considering the history of leisure sports. Leisure sports originated during a period of intellectual emancipation and were propelled by side- effects of the industrial revolution and the so-called service society: namely division of work, improved standard of living and increased amounts of free-time (but also greater specialization of work). Finally, activities such as sport always require volition and awareness whereas so-called “implicit” motives normally remain unconscious and unconsidered. Maslow’s basic needs are predominantly implicit motives. Explicit motives are based on cognition and self-reflexion. The so-called achievement motive is of specific importance for the discussion of motivation in the context of sport. Various authors have discussed the role of