Understanding Consciousness: Waking and Altered States, Sleep Stages and Disorders - Prof., Study notes of Psychology

Download Understanding Consciousness: Waking and Altered States, Sleep Stages and Disorders - Prof. and more Study notes Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! Chapter 6– States of Consciousness In everyday conversation, we use the consciousness to describe being alert. Psychologists define consciousness more broadly – as our awareness of ourselves and our environment. Those cognitive activities vary in the extent to which we are aware of our mental processes. They fall into two broad categories: Waking consciousness – includes all the thoughts, feelings, and perceptions that occur when we are awake and reasonably alert. Altered states of consciousness – a mental state that differs noticeably from normal waking consciousness. Explaining Waking Consciousness Historical Views The founders of psychology viewed the primary concern of their new science to be the study of consciousness through introspection and analysis. In the early 20th century, however, behaviorists and others rejected both consciousness as a topic and introspection as a method, in favor of the study of directly observable, measurable behavior. Watson, one of the founders of behaviorism, said “I believe that we can write a psychology and never use the terms consciousness, mental states, or mind…” Beginning in the 1960’s, however, a few things changed – there was more interest in alternative states of consciousness, the rise of cognitive psychology, advances in neuroscience, and general dissatisfaction with the narrow confines of behaviorism. These changes led to a renewed interest in consciousness. Sleep and Dreams Human beings spend about one-third of our lives in the altered state of consciousness known as sleep - characterized by reduction in voluntary body movement and decreased awareness of surroundings No one who has tried to stay awake longer than 20 hours at a time could doubt the necessity of sleep. Necessity of sleep: use of sleep deprivation as a torture/interrogation How long organisms sleep, where, in what positions, and other details vary from species to species. In general, large animals sleep less than small animals, perhaps because eating enough to support their size requires more time awake. The Rhythm of Sleep Circadian Rythm Like many other biological functions, sleep and waking follow a daily, or circadian, cycle. Circadian rhythms are an ancient and fundamental adaptation to the 24-hour solar cycle of light and dark, found not only in humans and other animals but also in plants and even one-celled organisms. The human biological clock is actually a tiny cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus – the suprachiasmatic nuclei - that responds to the activation of light-sensitive retinal proteins. The suprachiasmatic nuclei causes the pineal gland to alter its release of melatonin. Also, the longer you are awake, the more adenosine you accumulate. Sleep Stages To say that psychologists know more about sleep than about waking consciousness would only be a slight exaggeration. Over the years researchers have accumulated a large body of observations about what happens in our bodies and brains during sleep. In a typical study, researchers recruit volunteers to spend on or more nights in a sleep lab. They have electrodes attached to their skulls, and sleep comfortably as their brain waves, eye movements, muscle tension, and other physiological functions are monitored. Data from such studies show that although there are significant individual differences in sleep behavior, almost everyone goes through the same stages of sleep. “Going to sleep” As measured by an EEG, brain waves during this twilight state are characterized by irregular, low-voltage alpha waves – relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake stage. After this initial twilight phase, the sleeper enters Stage 1 of sleep. Stage 1 brain waves are tight and of very low amplitude, resembling those recorded when a person is alert or excited. But, in contrast to normal waking consciousness. Stage of the sleep cycle is marked by a slowing of the pulse, muscle relaxation, and side to side rolling of the eyes. During Stage 2, short rhythmic bursts of activity called sleep spindles periodically appear. In Stage 3, delta waves – slow waves with very high peaks During both Stage 2 and Stage 3, the sleeper is hard to awaken and does not respond to stimuli such as noises or lights. Heart rate, blood pressure, and temperature continue to drop. Side effects of Apnea – exhaustion, depression, sexual dysfunction, difficulty concentrating, headaches Narcolepsy – hereditary sleep disorder characterized by sudden nodding off during the day and sudden loss of muscle tone following moments of emotional excitement. May immediately enter REM sleep, leading to dreaming while still partly awake. Dreams Every culture, including our own, attaches meaning to dreams. Some people believe that dreams contain messages from their gods; some, that dreams predict the future; others, that dreams are real experiences of a spirit world that is not accessible to waking consciousness. Dreams – vivid visual and auditory experiences that occur primarily during REM periods of sleep. The average person has four or five dreams a night, accounting for about 1-2 hours of the total time spent sleeping. Report dreams 80-85% of time in REM sleep. Why do we Dream? Dreams as Unconscious Wishes In dreams, according to Freud, people permit themselves to express primitive desires that are relatively free of moral controls. According to Freud, this process of censorship and symbolic transformation accounts for the highly illogical nature of many dreams. Deciphering the disguised meaning of dreams is one of the principal tasks of psychoanalysts. Manifest content – the actual story of the dream Latent content – the “true” meaning of the dream Dreams as Information Processing. Another explanation for dreaming holds that in our dreams we reprocess information gathered during the day as a way of strengthening the memory of information crucial to survival. During our waking hours, our brains are bombarded with sensory data. We need a “time out” to decide what information is valuable, whether it should be filed in long-term memory, where it should be filed, and what information should be erased so it doesn’t clutter neural pathways. In support of this view, research has demonstrated that both humans and non-humans spend more time in REM sleep after learning difficult material. Furthermore, interfering with REM sleep immediately after learning severely disrupts the memory for the newly learned material. Dreams and Neural Activity Alan Hobson stunned other dream researchers when he proposed that dreams are simply the result of neurons misfiring, and are, in themselves, meaningless. According to Hobson’s activation-synthesis theory – dreams are result of neurons misfiring— meaningless Dreams and Waking Life Still another theory maintains that dreams are an extension of the conscious concerns of daily life in altered (but not disguised) form. Research has shown that what people dream about is generally similar to what they do and think about while awake. Drugs and Consciousness Drug-altered consciousness is not new. In nearly every known culture throughout history, people have sought ways to alter their waking consciousness. The use of psychoactive drugs – chemical substances that change moods, perceptions, mental functioning, or behavior – is almost universal. Many of the drugs available today – legally or illegally – have been used for thousands of years. Terms Tolerance – with repeated exposure to a psychoactive drug, the drug’s effect lessens. It will take more of the drug to achieve the same effect. Unfortunately, the overdose level remains the same. Withdrawal – discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug. Withdrawing from opiates is particularly unpleasant. Physical dependence – a physiological need for a drug, marked by withdrawal. Psychological dependence – craving a drug for psychological reasons. Thinking you can’t handle a social event without drinking first Addiction – compulsive drug craving and use. Depressants: Alcohol, Barbiturates, and Opiates Depressants slow down activity in the central nervous system, leading to feelings of calmness and drowsiness. In general, people take depressants to reduce tension, to forget their troubles, or to relieve feelings of inadequacy, loneliness, or boredom. Until the late 19th century, the only known sedative substances were alcohol and opium; in the 20th century, dozens of new depressants were discovered. Alcohol The most frequently used psychoactive drug in Western societies is alcohol – intoxicating ingredient in whiskey, beer, wine, and other fermented or distilled liquors. Of all psychoactive substances, alcohol has the longest history of widespread use. Aqua vitae – water of life: People found water to add alcohol in it for drinkability. The effects of alcohol depend on the individual, the social setting, and cultural attitudes – but also how much a person consumes and how fast. Typically one or two drinks lead to feelings of relaxation and sociability. Another round, and inhibitions are lowered. Sensitivity to outside stimuli, judgment, learning, and memory are reduced. Emotions and behavior become exaggerated. Some people become excited and extremely talkative; others become depressed and withdrawn. A fourth or fifth drink impairs motor coordination; speech is slurred and the drinker is unsteady on his or her feet. With continued drinking, some people pass out – others become confused, agitated, and violent. Many Americans see nothing wrong with moderate social drinking but disapprove of drunkenness. Physicians agree, with qualifications; for healthy adults, there is little harm in having one or two glasses of wine, cans of beer, or shots of liquor a day – unless the person is pregnant, taking medications, working with potentially dangerous equipment, or planning to go for a drive or a boat ride. Indeed, moderate drinking may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in both men and women. Alcohol is America’s number one drug problem. Alcohol is a highly addictive drug with potentially devastating long-term effects. At least 8 million Americans are alcoholics. Heavy, chronic drinking can harm virtually every organ in the body, beginning with the brain. Chronic and excessive alcohol use is associated with impairments in perceptual- motor skills, visual-spatial processing, problem solving, and abstract reasoning. Alcohol is the leading cause of liver disease and kidney damage; is a major factor in cardiovascular disease; increases the risk of certain cancers; and can lead to sexual dysfunction and infertility.