Structured Computer Organization - Principles of Computer Architecture - Lecture Slides, Slides of Advanced Computer Architecture

Download Structured Computer Organization - Principles of Computer Architecture - Lecture Slides and more Slides Advanced Computer Architecture in PDF only on Docsity! Structured Computer Organization • A computer’s native language, machine language, is difficult for human’s to use to program the computer – Due to this difficulty, computers are often structured as a series of abstractions, each building on the one below it – In this way, complexity can be mastered – This approach is called structured computer organization Docsity.com Languages, Levels, and Virtual Machines – Let the machine language be called L0 (since it is at the lowest level of abstraction) – L0 is inconvenient for human use, so let’s design a new language L1 which is easier • A program written in L1 must be translated into an equivalent L0 program before it can be executed • Another possibility is to write a program in L0 that examines each individual instruction and executes the equivalent sequence of L0 instructions. This technique is called interpretation and the program is called an interpreter. Docsity.com Contemporary Multilevel Machines • Most modern computers consist of two or more levels (as many as six) – The lowest level is the digital logic level constructed from gates • Each gate has one or more digital inputs and computes some simple function of the inputs such as AND or OR. Gates are built up from transistors. • A small number of gates can be combined to form a 1- bit memory. 1-bit memories can be combined to from 16, 32, or 64 bit registers which can hold a single binary number. Docsity.com Contemporary Multilevel Machines – The next level up is the microarchitecture level • At this level we see a collection of (typically) 8 to 32 registers that form a local memory and a circuit called an ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) capable of performing simple arithmetic operations. • The registers are connected to the ALU to form a data path over which data flow • On some machines the operation of the data path is controlled by a program called a microprogram. On other machines the data path is controlled directly by hardware. Docsity.com Contemporary Multilevel Machines • Level 2 is the Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) level. This level consists of the instructions that can be carried out by the computer. • The facilities added at level 3 are carried out by an interpreter running at level 2 called an operating system. This level is called the operating system level. • Levels 4 and 5 are used by application programmers (only systems programmers use the lower three levels). The languages of levels 4 and 5 are usually translated while those of levels 2 and 3 are always interpreted. Docsity.com Evolution of Multilevel Machines • The first digital computers had only two levels: the ISA level (where programming was done) and the digital logic level. The digital logic circuits were very complicated. – In 1951, Maurice Wilkes suggested the idea of a three-level computer in order to simplify the hardware. The machine was to have a built-in unchangeable program (the microprogram whose function was to execute ISA-level programs. The microprogram was easier to implement in hardware then the instruction set, so the circuits needed were simpler. – A few three-level machines were constructed in the 1950s, more during the 1960s and by 1970 microprogrammed machines were dominant. Docsity.com Evolution of Multilevel Machines • Early computers were operated directly by a programmer (or a computer operator) who entered a deck of cards containing (e.g.) a FORTRAN program. The program was translated to machine language, output on cards and subsequently run. • Around 1960 people tried to reduce wasted time by automating the operator’s job. A program called an operating system was kept in the computer at all times. The programmer provided certain control cards along with the program that were read and carried out by the operating system. Docsity.com 3 Docsity.com A von Neumann Machine Memary » Arithmetic Control logic unit unit Ae a Figure 1-5. The original von Neumann machine Input i Accumulator > Output Docsity.com First Bus-Based System CPU Memory Console terminal Paper tape VO Other VO Figure 1-6. The PD P-8 omnibus Omnibus Docsity.com The IBM 360 Product Line Property Model 30 | Model 40 | Model 50 | Model 65 Relative performance 1 3.5 10 21 Cycle time (in billionths of a sec) 1000 625 500 250 Maximum memory (bytes) 65,536 262,144 262,144 524,288 Bytes fetched per cycle 1 2 4 16 Maximum number of data channels 3 3 4 6 Docsity.com The Computer Spectrum • Although PCs are the most common type of computer, there are others as well • Disposable computers are found in greeting cards • Embedded computers are found inside devices such as telephones, televisions, CD players and toys • Game computers have a CPU, memory, a display and not much else (Personal Digital Assistant and Network Computers are similar) • Servers are similar to high-end PCs and may contain multiple CPUs as well as large secondary storage capabilities and high-speed networking Docsity.com The Computer Spectrum – NOW (Network of Workstations) or COW (Cluster of Workstations) consist of standard PCs or workstations connected by gigabit/sec networks, and running specialized software that allow all the machines to work together on a single problem – Mainframes are large computers which have high I/O capacity and vast storage capacities – Supercomputers are typically highly parallel machines made from high-end components Docsity.com Typical Prices of Computers Typical prices (very approximate) Type Price ($) Example application Disposable computer 0.5 Greeting cards Microcontroller 5 Watches, cars, appliances Mobile and game computers 50 Home video games and smartphones Personal computer 500 Desktop or notebook computer Server 5K Network server Mainframe 5M Batch data processing in a bank Docsity.com The Intel CPU Family • Key members of the Intel CPU family . . . Docsity.com The Intel CPU Family (ii) • Key members of the Intel CPU family Docsity.com The Intel CPU Family (iii) The Pentium 4 chip. The photograph is copyrighted by the Intel Corporation, 2003 and is used by permission. Docsity.com UltraSPARC III – In the 1970s, UNIX was popular at universities, but it ran only on timeshared minicomputers such as the VAX and PDP-11 – In 1981, a Stanford graduate student built a personal UNIX workstation using off-the-shelf parts. It was called the SUN-1. – Early Sun workstations used Motorola CPUs. – In 1987, Sun decided to design its own CPU based on a Cal Berkeley design called the RISC II. Docsity.com UltraSPARC III • The new CPU was called the SPARC (Scalable Processor ARChitecture) and was used in the Sun-4. • The SPARC was licensed to several semiconductor manufacturers who developed binary compatible versions. • The first SPARC was a 32-bit machine with only 55 instructions (an FPU added 14 additional instructions). • A 64-bit version, the UltraSPARC I was developed in 1995. This machine was aimed at high-end applications (e.g. web and database servers). Docsity.com ARM Architecture for PDAs and Smartphones • The Nvidia Tegra 2 system on a chip. © 2011 Nvidia Corporation. Used by permission. Docsity.com