Erikson's Expansion on Parent-Infant Relationship & Emotional Development - Prof. Julie C., Study notes of Developmental Psychology

Download Erikson's Expansion on Parent-Infant Relationship & Emotional Development - Prof. Julie C. and more Study notes Developmental Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! STUDY QUESTIONS Erikson s Theory of Infant and Toddler Personality Basic Trust versus Mistrust 1. How did Erikson expand and enrich Freud s view of the importance of the parent infant relationship during the first year? (p. 184) amount of food didn't matter, quality of caregiving mattered, acknowledges differences in parents that would change things, but when balance of care is sympathetic and loving, the psychological confilct of the first year basic trust versus mistrust is resolved on the positive side 2. Based on Erikson s theory, summarize the psychological conflict of the first year, basic trust versus mistrust, and explain how it can be positively resolved. (p. 184) when balance of care is sympathetic and loving, the psychological confilct of the first year basic trust versus mistrus t is resolved on the positive side, trusting infant expects world to be good and gratifying, so he explores, mistrus tful baby cannot count on kindness of others so he withdraws from people and things Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt 1. In what way did Erikson expand on Freud s view of development during the second year? (p. 184) not just toilet training that 's importan t, but many other experiences, budding selfhood 2. Explain how the psychological conflict of toddlerhood, autonomy versus shame and doubt, is resolved favorably. (pp.184 185) when parents provide youg children with suitable guidance and reasonable choices Emotional Development Development of Some Basic Emotions 1. Define the term basic emotions, and provide several examples. (p. 185) A. universal emotions in humans and other primates that have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival, and can be directly inferred from facial expressions B. happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, disgust 2. True or False : At birth, infants are able to express all of the basic emotions. (p. 185) 3. What is the social smile, and when does it develop? (p. 186) develops between 6 and 10 weeks, when the human face evokes a broad grin 4. Laughter, which appears around 3 to 4 months, reflects (faster / slower) processing of information than does smiling. (p. 186) 5. How do expressions of happiness change between early infancy and the middle of the first year? (p. 186) they have several smiles which vary with context 6. The frequency and intensity of infants angry reactions (increases / decreases) with age. (p. 186) 7. Fear reactions (increase / decrease) during the second half of the first year. (p. 186) 8. The most frequent expression of fear in infancy is, to unfamiliar adults, a response called stranger anxiety. (p. 186) 9. True or False : To minimize stranger anxiety, an unfamiliar adult should immediately pick up and talk to the infant. (p. 186) 10. Explain how the rise in fear after 6 months of age is adaptive. (p. 188) keeps newly mobile babies' enthusiasm for exploration in check, helps them develop a secure base, also a balance between approaching strangers and avoiding them 11. Describe how cognitive development influences infants fearful reactions. (p. 188) allows baby to discriminate more effectively between threatening and nonthreatening things / people, and develops more ways to cope with fear, stranger anxiety and other fears decrease after 2 years A Lifespan Vista: Parental Depression and Children s Development 1. Approximately 8 to 10 percent of women experience chronic depression mild to severe feelings of sadness and withdrawal that continue for months or years. (p. 187) 2. Depression that emerges or strengthens after childbirth but fails to subside is called postpartum depression . (p. 187) 3. Discuss how depression affects the mother s interactions with her infant. (p. 187) less smiling, comforting, and talking to baby 4. Explain how persistent maternal depression and associated parenting behaviors affect the development of the child. (p. 187) delays in development, irritable mood, attachment difficulties 5. List behavior problems that infants of depressed fathers may develop in the preschool years. (p. 187) overactivity, defiance, and aggression 6. True or False: At older ages, parental depression is linked to frequent father child conflict. (p. 187) 7. True or False: Early treatment of parental depression is vital to prevent the disorder from interfering with the parent child relationship. (p. 187) Understanding and Responding to the Emotions of Others 1. Early on, babies detect others emotions through the fairly automatic process of emotional contagion that is, they tend to feel happy or sad when they sense these emotions in others. (p. 188) 2. Define social referencing, and explain the functions it serves for infants and toddlers. (p. 188) Biology and Environment: Development of Shyness and Sociability 1. Kagan, a researcher who studies shyness and sociability in children, believes that individual differences in arousal of the amygdala an inner brain structure that controls avoidance reactions, contributes to these contras ting temperamen tal styles. (p. 193) 2. List four physiological correlates of approach withdrawal behavior, and indicate how they are linked to temperamental inhibition. (p. 193) A. differences in arousal of amygdala B. pattern of brain waves in the frontal lobes and cerebral cortex, shy show greater EEG activity in right frontal lobe negative emotions, social show opposite D. inhibition, leads to excessive cautionsness, increases risk of anxiety 3. Heritability research indicates that genes contribute (modestly / substan tially ) to shyness and sociability. (p. 193) 4. Explain how child- rearing practices affect the chances that an emotionally reactive baby will become a fearful child. (p. 193) warm suppor tive parents reduce shy infants' and preschoolers ' intense physiological reaction to novelty, whereas cold, intrusive parents heighten anxiety Stability of Temperament 1. True or False: Temperamen tal stability from one age period to the next is generally low to moderate. (p. 192) 2. Long- term predictions about early temperamen t are best achieved after age 2 when styles of responding are better established. (p. 192) 3. Research findings demonst rate that child rearing plays (an important / a minor) role in modifying biologically based temperamen tal traits. (p. 192) Genetic Influences 1. Research shows that identical twins (are / are not) more similar than fraternal twins in temperamen t and personality. (p. 192) 2. True or False : Lack of consistent ethnic and sex differences in early temperamen t have called into question the role of heredity. (p. 192) 3. The role of heredity on temperamen tal traits is considerably (less / more) in infancy than in childhood and later years. (p. 192) Environmental Influences 1. Describe how parental behaviors contribute to ethnic and sex differences in temperament. (pp. 192 194) Ethnic differences: differences in cultural childraising beliefs, japanese physical contact, caucasian verbal approach Sex differences: encourage different things based on sex, for example, boys to be physically active and girls to seek help and physical closeness 2. True or False: Research indicates that parents often regard siblings as having more distinct temperaments than observers do. Provide an example to suppor t your answer. (p. 194) in an investigation of identical - twin toddlers, mothers treated each twin differently, the twin who received more warmth and less harshness was more positive in mood and social behavior. Temperament and Child Rearing: The Goodness - of- Fit Model 1. Describe the goodness- of- fit model. (p. 194) describes how temperamen t and environment can together produce favorable outcomes. involves creating child- rearing environments that recognize each child's termeramen t while encouraging more adaptive functioning 2. The goodness - of- fit model helps explain why children with a difficult temperament are at high risk for later adjustment problems. (p. 194) 3. Provide an example of how the goodness - of- fit model is culturally dependent. (p. 195) in China, before, collectivist values, which discourage self- assertion, led Chinese adults to evaluate shy children positively, and several studies showed that Chinese children of a decade or two ago appeared well- adjusted, academically and socially, but now, expansion of a competitive economy in China rhich requires assertiveness caused a reverse in Chinese parents ' attitudes towards childhood shyness and they didn' t adjust well. 4. Describe parental behaviors that benefit difficult and shy children? (p. 195) warm accepting parents that makes firm but reasonable demands for mastering new experiences 5. True or False: Whereas reserved, inactive toddlers benefit from highly stimulating maternal behavior, the same parental behavior has a negative impact on active children. (p. 195) Development of Attachment 1. Define attachment . (p. 196) strong affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to feel pleasure when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress 2. True or False: Both psychoanalytic and behaviorist theories emphasize feeding as the central context in which infants and caregivers build a close emotional bond. (p. 196) 3. How did research on rhesus monkeys challenge the idea that attachment depends on hunger satisfaction? (p. 196) the baby clung to the mother who was soft rather than the mother with food Ethological Theory of Attachment 1. True or False: The ethological theory of attachment is the most widely accepted view of the infants emotional tie to the caregiver. (p. 196) 2. Summarize the ethological theory of attachment. (pp. 196 197) recognizes infant's emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival 3. Match each phase of attachment with the appropriate description. (p. 197)  Clear- cut attachment: Attachment to the familiar caregiver is evident, and infants display separation anxiety. Preattachment phase: Infants are not yet attached to their mother and do not mind being left with an unfamiliar adult. Formation of a reciprocal relationship: Separation anxiety declines as children gain an unders tanding of the parent s comings and goings and can predict his / her return.  Attachment - in- the- making : Infants start to respond differently to a familiar caregiver than to a stranger. 4. According to Bowlby, children construct an internal working model based on their experiences during the four phases of attachment. Define and explain this term. (p. 197) set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures and their likelihood of providing suppor t during times of stress. It becomes a vital part of personality, serving as a guide for all future close relationships. Measuring the Security of Attachment 1. The Strange Situation designed by Mary Ainsworth, is the most widely used technique for measuring the quality of attachment between 1 and 2 years of age. (pp. 197 198) 2. Match each of the following attachment classifications with the appropriate description. (p. 198) Resistant attachment: Before separation, these infants seek closeness to the parent and fail to explore. When she returns, they display angry behaviors, may continue to cry after being picked up, and cannot be easily comforted. Secure attachment: Before separation, these infants use the parent as a base from which to explore. They are upset by the parent s absence, and they seek contact and are easily comforted when she returns. Avoidant attachment: Before separation, these infants seem unresponsive to the parent. When she leaves, they react to the stranger in much the same way as to the parent. Upon her return, they are slow to greet her. Disorganized / d isoriented attachment: When the parent returns, these infants show confused, contradictory behaviors, such as looking away while being held. 3. The Attachment Q- Sort is used as an alternative to the Strange Situation for measuring attachment in children ages 1 to 4 years. Briefly describe this method. (p. 198) depends on home observation, either parent or highly trained observer sorts 90 behaviors into categories ranging from highly descriptive to not at all descriptive of child, then a score from high to low in security is computed Stability of Attachment 1. Summarize SES differences in patterns of attachment. (pp. 198 199) for middle - SES babies experiencing favorable life conditions attachment is usually secure and stable, for low- SES families with many daily stresses, attachment generally moves away from security or changes from one insecure pattern to another 2. True or False: Insecurely attached infants maintain their attachment status more 203) A. higher quality child- care B. less hours of childcare C. Multiple Attachments 1. True or False: When both parents are present and infants are anxious, unhappy, or distressed, they prefer to be comforted by their mother. (p. 202) 2. Describe how mothers and fathers in many cultures differ in the way they interact with infants. (pp. 202 203) mothers devote more time to physical care and expressing affection, fathers spend more time in playful interaction 3. How have parental roles in relating to infants changed in response to women s workforce participation? (p. 203) engage in more playful stimulation of babies, responsibility is more shared 4. When a new baby arrives, how is a preschool sibling likely to respond? Include both negative and positive reactions in your answer. (p. 204) Negative: become demanding, clingy, and deliberately naughty for a time and security of attachment declines Positive: shows affection and concern, spend much time together and baby is comforted by their presence during parental absenses Cultural Influences: The Powerful Role of Paternal Warmth in Development 1. Explain how fathers demonstra te warmth through play. (p. 204) play sensitively, accepting toddlers' play initiatives, adapting play behavior to toddlers' capacities, and responding appropriately to toddlers' expressions of emotion 2. Summarize factors that promote paternal warmth. (p. 204) amount of time fathers spend near infants and toddlers and their expressions of caring and affection 3. Discuss how marital quality affects fathers interaction with their infants. (p. 204) gratifying marriages cause father to spend more time with and interact more effectively with infants, marital dissatisfaction is associated with insensitive parental care Attachment and Later Development 1. True or False : Research consistently shows that secure infants show more favorable development than insecure infants. (p. 205) 2. The disorganized / d i soriented attachment pattern is consistently related to high hostility and aggression in early and middle childhood. (p. 205) 3. Evidence suggests that continuity of caregiving determines whether attachment is linked to later development. Briefly explain this relationship. (pp. 205 206) if parents continue to respond sensitively from infancy to later years, it promotes many aspects of development, such as more confidence, more advanced emotional unders tanding, more favorable relationships, strong sense of morals, higher motivation in school Self- Development During the First Two Years Self- Awareness 1. True or False: At birth, infants sense that they are physically distinct from their surroundings. (p. 206) 2. Newborns capacity for intermodal perception suppor ts the beginnings of self- awareness. (p. 206) 3. Define self - recognition, and provide an example of this ability. (pp. 206 207) A. identification of the self as a physically unique being B. point at themselves in photos and refer to themselves by name or  I  me 4. Describe two ways in which self - awareness support s emotional and social development. (p. 207) A. suppor ts initial efforts to appreciate others' perspectives B. strengthen sense of self Categorizing the Self 1. Describe categorizations of the self that appear in toddlerhood, and cite an example of how children use this knowledge to organize their behavior. (p. 208) A. age, sex, physical characteristics, goodness versus badness B. gender stereotyped responses Self- Control 1. List three developmental milestones that are essential for the development of self - control. (p. 208) A. think of themselves as separate, autonomous beings who can direct their own actions B. compliance C. delay of gratification 2. Toddlers 12 to 18 months of age are capable of compliance. Opposition is far (less common / more common) than compliance. (p. 208) 3. True or False : Children who are advanced in development of attention and language tend to have greater difficulty delaying gratification. (p. 209) 4. Describe ways that parents can help toddlers develop compliance and self- control. (p. 209) expand rules, constan t overseeing and reminding PUZZLE 6.1 TERM REVIEW Across 3. _____ control: the capacity to suppress a dominant response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response 7. Identification of the self as a physically unique being 10. A child who reacts negatively to and withdraws from novel stimuli 11. Emotions that can be directly inferred from facial expressions 12. Temperament style characterized by establishment of regular routines in infancy, general cheerfulness, and easy adaptation to new experiences 15. A child who reacts positively to and approaches novel stimuli 18. Stable, individual differences in quality and intensity of emotional reaction, activity level, attention, and emotional self - regulation Down 1. _____ - _____ emotions involve injury to or enhancement of the sense of self. 2. Temperament style characterized by inactivity, mild, low- key reactions to environmental stimuli, negative mood, and slow adjustment to new experiences (4 words, hyph.) 4. _____ self: between 18 and 30 months children develop the capacity to categorize themselves and others on the basis of age, sex, physical characteristics, and goodness versus badness. 5. Social _____ involves reliance upon another s emotional reaction to appraise uncertain situations. 6. Emotional _____ - _____ : strategies for adjusting our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity 8. Delay of _____ : waiting for an appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act 9. Basic trust versus _____ : Erikson s psychological conflict of the first year 13. Attachment _____ : an alternative method of measuring the security of attachment through observation 14. _____ versus shame and doubt: Erikson s psychological confict of toddlerhood 16. Temperament style characterized by irregular daily routines; slow acceptance of new experiences; and negative, intense reactions 17. Ability to understand another s emotional state and feel with that person PRACTICE TEST #1 1. According to Erikson s theory, a healthy outcome during infancy depends on the (p. 184) a. amount of food the child receives. b. amount of oral stimulation the child receives. c. quality of caregiving the child receives. d. genes the child has inherited. 2. Between 6 and 10 weeks, the human face evokes a broad grin called the (p. 186) a. social smile. b. happy face. c. playful grin. d. infant smirk. 3. Emotions that can be directly inferred from facial expressions are referred to as (p. 185) a. social emotions. b. self- conscious emotions. c. basic emotions. d. referential emotions. 4. Early on, infants detect others emotions through a fairly automatic process of (p. 188) a. stranger anxiety. b. emotional contagion. c. social referencing. d. emotional self- regulation. 5. When an unfamiliar adult offers Heather a toy, she hesitates and looks at her mother, who smiles and nods. Heather then reaches out and takes the toy. This is an example of (p. 188) a. self- control. b. social referencing. c. emotional contagion. d. compliance. 6. Which of the following are self - conscious emotions? (p. 188) a. happiness and sadness b. fear and anger c. interest and surprise d. shame and embarrassment 7. The capacity to adjust one s emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity is known as (p. 189) a. affective monitoring. b. emotional self - regulation. c. emotional self- control. d. emotive self - referencing. 8. The first of Bowlby s four attachment phases is (p. 197) a. attachment - in- the- making. b. clear - cut attachment. c. preattachment. d. formation of a reciprocal relationship. 9. Research on the stability of temperamen t shows that (p. 192) a. temperament is highly stable from infancy to adulthood. b. temperament is moderately stable from one age period to the next. c. temperament is not at all stable from one age period to the next. d. temperament stabilizes in late childhood and is consistent after that time. 10. The notion that an effective match between child- rearing practices and a child s temperament will lead to favorable outcomes is known as (p. 194) a. secure base. b. goodness - of- fit. c. interactional synchrony. d. sensitive caregiving. 11. When baby Zoey becomes upset when her mother leaves a room, she is displaying (p. 197) a. effortful control. b. separation anxiety. c. emotional self- regulation. d. social referencing. 12. Formation of a reciprocal relationship usually occurs between (p. 197) a. 6 and 9 months. b. 9 months and 1 year. c. 1 year and 18 months. d. 18 months and 2 years, and beyond. 13. When do babies begin to assess that they are physically distinct from their surroundings? (p. 206) a. at birth b. 6 months c. 1 year d. 2 years 14. When placed in the Strange Situation, infants who seek closeness to their mother before separation but display angry behavior when she returns are classified as having which pattern of attachment? (p. 198) a. secure b. avoidant c. resistant d. disorganized / disoriented 15. A sensitively tuned interaction in which the mother responds to infant signals in a well- timed, appropriate fashion and both partners match emotional states is called (p. 200) a. interactional synchrony. b. sensitive caregiving. c. social reciprocity. d. social referencing. 16. Research on the relationship between caregiving and attachment style shows that (p. 200) a. sensitive caregiving distinguishes securely from insecurely attached infants. b. secure attachment is associated with almost 100 percent interactional synchrony between mother and infant. c. resistant infants tend to have mothers who are minimally involved in caregiving and unresponsive to infant signals. d. children who experience abuse and neglect are no more likely than other children to develop insecure attachments. 17. The ability to unders tand another s emotional state and feel with that person is called (p. 207) a. interactional synchrony. b. self- recognition. d. avoidant attachment. 6. Guilt, shame, and embarrassmen t appear in children between the ages of (p. 188) a. 12 and 18 months. b. 18 and 24 months. c. 24 and 30 months. d. 30 and 36 months. 7. Which of the following is the best example of an infant engaging in social referencing? (p. 188) a. looking for home while riding in a stroller b. crying loudly when hungry at mealtime c. taking a toy back from an older sibling d. searching for mother s face in a crowded market 8. The capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response is known as (p. 191) a. effortful control. b. emotional control. c. emotional contagion. d. compliance. 9. In the measurement of temperament, (p. 191) a. parent reports have been found to be the most unbiased source of information. b. behavior ratings by pediatricians and teachers are the measures most often used. c. direct observations by researchers have been emphasized because of their convenience. d. physiological assessments have been successful in differentiating shy children from sociable children. 10. Research on genetic and environmental influences on temperament shows that (p. 192) a. identical twins are no more alike than fraternal twins across a wide range of temperament traits. b. about half of the individual differences in temperament and personality can be traced to differences in genetic makeup. c. findings on ethnic and sex differences have failed to reveal distinct patterns, suggesting that temperament is entirely attributable to genetic foundations. d. environmental factors appear to be solely responsible for the development of temperament. 11. In which of Bowlby s attachment phases will a baby display separation anxiety? (p. 197) a. attachment - in- the- making b. clear- cut attachment c. preattachment d. formation of a reciprocal relationship 12. If Maria responds promptly, consistently, and appropriately to her baby daughter and she holds her tenderly and carefully, she is exhibiting (p. 200) a. clear - cut attachment. b. sensitive caregiving. c. interactional synchrony. d. separation anxiety. 13. Toddlers become consciously aware of the self s physical features (p. 207) a. during the first 6 months. b. between 6 and 12 months. c. during the second year. d. after the second year.