Behaviorism and Attitudes: Learning, Prejudice, and Group Dynamics - Prof. Samuel S. Fung, Study notes of Psychology

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Chapter 5: Attitudes & Persuasion Attitude Attitude: Tri-component view of attitudes  A: affective component  B: behavioral component  C: cognitive component Attitude: + or – (positive or negative)  Affective o Emotion & feeling; positive & negative  Behavioral o Action: to do or not to do; approach or avoid  Cognitive o Belief & knowledge; right or wrong info Formation of attitude  Learning theory: nurture not nature o Classical conditioning: S→R (stimulus, response) o Operant conditioning: R→S o Social learning theory: modeling & observation Classical conditioning  Food (US) → Salivation (UR)  Food (US) + Bell (CS) → Salivation (UR)  Bell (CS) → Salivation (CR)  Involuntary behavior  Affective component: emotion, feeling Operant conditioning  Reward  Punishment  Reinforcement  Instrumental conditioning o Reinforcement  Positive: present of stimulus to increase the behavior (reward)  Negative: remove of aversive stimulus to increase behavior Reinforcement  Positive: increase of behavior leading to the present of pleasant stimulus  Negative: increase of behavior leading to the removal of aversive stimulus Punishment  To weaken or to suppress voluntary response/behavior  Positive: weaken behavior leading to removal/avoidance of aversive stimulus  Negative: weaken behavior leading to the present of pleasant stimulus + - Reinforcement Pleasant Stimulus (present) Behavior (increase) Unpleasant Stimulus (remove) Behavior (increase) Punishment Unpleasant Stimulus (present) Behavior (decrease) Pleasant Stimulus (remove) Behavior (decrease) Instrumental attitudes  Attitudes based on benefits & costs associated w/ the attitude object  Utilitarian  Usefulness  Utility Social Learning Theory  Modeling  Observation  No direct experience  Mere exposure Communication style  Speech & speed  Body language, facial expression, eye contact o credibility  Humorous style Repetition  Repeating a message increases its persuasive power Speech & speed  Rapid speech can benefit peripheral-route persuasion, yet often hinders central-route process Humor  Increases attention to a persuasive message  If it relevant to the message What: content  One-sided or two-sided story  Fear arousing message  Order of message presentation Fear  Appeals facilitative persuasion if certain conditions are met  Recipient of message must be convinced that: o Dangers are serious o Dangers are probable o Recommendations to avoid the dangers will be effective Order /Sequence of Message Presentation  Message A, Message B – Time Delay → Measurement  Message A – Time Delay – Message B → Measurement  Message A, Message B → Measurement  Message A – Time Delay – Message B – Time Delay → Measurement Memory Exercise ________________________________ Order Effect  Order in which messages are presented can influence their persuasiveness  Primacy vs. recency o Time between message o Personal relevance Chapter 7: Stereotyping, Prejudice & Discrimination  Events/issues – gender, religion, ethnicity Issues!  Race  Education  Gender/sex  Age  Economic status  Physical characteristics  Nationality  Disability  Religion  Occupation  Sex preference  Political beliefs etc. Prejudice & Discrimination  Stereotype  Prejudice  Discrimination Definition  Prejudice: is a negative attitude directed toward people simply b/c they are member of a specific social group o Explicit prejudice – consciously doing it o Implicit prejudice – unconsciously doing it  Stereotype: generalization or over generalization social categorization  Prejudice: negative affective component: emotion, negative cognition component: thinking  Discrimination: negative behavioral component negative action toward members of a specific social group Behaviorism: Learning  Prejudice & discrimination: learning process  Not nature but nurture  Not inborn but learned Prejudice  It unjustly portrays out-groups more negatively than in-group  It leads people to underestimate the variability within out-groups  It is factually wrong Causes?  Fear  Ignorance  Family  Jealousy  Bad/negative experience  Conformity  Personality Causes  Competition  “Scapegoat” theory: social dominance theory  Authoritarian personality Competition  Incompatible goal  Win or lose  Realistic group conflict occurs when groups compete over scarce resources  Ethnocentrism increases under conditions of realistic group conflict o Ethnocentrism – a pattern of increased hostility toward outgroups by increased loyalty to one’s groups Scapegoat Theory  Social dominance theory: dominance group in society  That’s-not-all  Low-balling Foot-in-the-door  From small request → large request (what you actually want)  Self image: self consistency Door-in-the-face  Big unreasonable request → small request (what you actually want)  Reverse from foot-in-the-door  Reciprocal concession  Self representation Low balling  Strike: get you  Committed to comply → favorable term → renege Compliance  Compliance – gaining behavior  Different types of strategies  Deception, strong & weak strategies Factors affecting compliance  Self-image: self consistency o Foot-in-the-door situation o Self presentation: I am not that bad (door-in-the-face)  Mood o Positive & negative mood  Reciprocity norm o The expectation that one should return a favor or good deed o I scratch your back & you will scratch mine o Party: rsvp o Fairness Obedience: Milgram  Demands & orders  65% in the experiment obeyed the orders & continued to the end of the shock  Factors: o High degree of apparent status  Assume authority figure o Responsibility Social impact theory  The theory that the amount of social influence others have depends on their number, strength, and immediacy to those they are trying to influence  Number concerns the number of sources & the dispersion of targets  Strength is a function of status, expertise, & power  Immediacy is a function of closeness to individuals in terms of time & space Chapter 8: Group Dynamics Working w/others Group processes  Group dynamics  Group behavior  Group: definition  Group characteristics Group  Degree of affiliation: a sense of belonging  Interdependent The nature of groups  Groups: several interdependent people who have emotional ties & interact on a regular basis  Interdependent: depending on one another to achieve group goals  Group size o Member similarity & diversity o Ethnocentrism: tendency to view one’s own group as morally superior & more worth trust than the other group  Group structure: develops quickly & changes slowly o Social norms: rules, policies, etc. o Social roles: role & expectation o Status systems: power  Nonverbal determination  Expectation states theory Group decision rules  Equality  Equity  Relative needs theory  Person  Position  Production Problems!  Social loafing  Diffusion of responsibility  Groupthink Social loafing  Definition: group-induced reduction in individual output when effort are pooled & cannot be individually judged  Reducing social loafing o Potential evaluation o Social ostracism Diffusion of responsibility  Definition: belief that the presence of other people makes one less personally responsible for the events that occur in a situation Groupthink  Group making wrong decision/judgment Social facilitation  Group influence on individual behavior  Definition: enhancement of dominant responses due to the presence of others  Presence of others affect individual performance o Either improve or impair Social facilitation: three determing factors  Drive theory of social facilitation  Apprehension over evaluation  Distraction-conflict model