Methodological Challenges in Jewish History, Culture & Heritage: Tradition & Interpretatio, Study notes of Judaic Studies

Download Methodological Challenges in Jewish History, Culture & Heritage: Tradition & Interpretatio and more Study notes Judaic Studies in PDF only on Docsity! Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University JUD 2134: Jewish History, Culture, and Heritage Midterm-Exam Review Packet **This review packet should only serve as a guide to your midterm-exam preparation, do not rely solely on information provided in this packet (most of which you already know from class and the readings). Hopefully, this guide should allow you to better navigate through the readings and class notes. Also, please make sure you are familiar with the terms and people from all of your other review sheets. If any terms here are 1 unfamiliar to you, look them up in the glossary at the end of CJRT.** GOOD LUCK! 2 the furnace for a new start, and out of it another fresh vessel is formed.” al-Ghazali2 a) This rather perspicacious passage from the great medieval Muslim sage, al-Ghazali, anticipates the problem of tradition in a secular world – the tension secularity and what we will call “second innocence.” b) If tradition, in its primordial setting, is suddenly questioned and falters – perhaps falls into pieces – one must smelt the fragments of al-Ghazali’s vessel of tradition anew in order to re-construct it. c) Kafka and the doll (The Retrieval of Innocence and Tradition) 1. Kafka met a little girl on a walk in a park. She was sad that her doll disappeared. 2. Kafka told her that the doll simply went away on a trip. In fact, Kafka was receiving letters from the doll. 3. The correspondence ceased after Kafka was diagnosed with Tuberculosis (he dies several months later). 4. Before leaving to Prague, he sent her a new doll (not a replacement) i. He explained the paradox: the doll changed as a result of her adventures – she was the same in essence. ii. Ernst akiva Simon called this process “second navivete” – the innocence which is necessary to regain faith after secularization. II. The Methodological study of Jewish Tradition: a) Unfortunately there is not much new scholarship of the notion of tradition b) The 7 “Cs” of Tradition – which change during the advent of Modernity 1. Creed – the fundamental beliefs that provided Jewish life a compelling ontological and sacral 2 Al-Ghazali, al-Munqidh min al-Dalal, 27. 5 quality. The epistemological thrust of modernity clearly threatened the premises of Jewish religious creeds – as did it of all theistic systems – notion of revelation changed. 2. Code – The religious law governing the life of traditional Judaism. The Halakhah had to change when Jews entered into modern discourse. 3. Cult – The ritual and ceremonial life of the traditional Jew. They were derived from Halakhah. In modern Judaism these are severed from Modern Jewish life. After the advent of modernity, the rituals are now often selectively maintained and affirmed principally from their social and cultural functions. 4. Community – The traditional Jew regarded himself as part of a Schicksalsgemeinshaft – community of shared destiny – of a common past, present, and future. Modernity strained this. 5. Culture – Traditional Jewish life has evolved into a distinct culture – it is overwhelmingly religious, but also folkloristic, axiological and ethical 6. Cognitive – Jews regard the Torah as the word of God – as truth. Jews are commanded to study this word as it states in Joshua 1:8: “Though shall mediate upon it day and night.” Creedal and cultic life comes together in study. In the modern world, we are beholdened to “images of knowledge” that truth is found elsewhere than in God’s revealed word (the source, purpose, and principles of verification) a) The Source – elders, divine revelation, Newspaper, myth, shared memory, personal experience b) Purpose – worship, wellness, happiness c) Principles of Verification – hermeneutical (using proof texts), empirical examination d) These things determine a given image of knowledge to which a particular society is beholden. 6 7. Covenant – Traditional Jews regard themselves of having a special covenant with God. * Kant dismissed tradition because when we entered into a new terrain of intellect we need our own compass – tradition cannot help us in these unknown waters. c) Minhag vs. Masorah – according to Rotenstreich – transmitting texts to each other. Reading w/o vowels establishes an oral tradition. Need reader to establish dialogue. d) Rotenstreich and his definition of “Tradition” (look 1. Tradition as language II. Hermeneutics and Culture *The Hebrew Bible is the foundation text for Judaism. 1. The textual tradition comprises of a distinct discursive tradition (using logic rather than intuition or emotion to reach a conclusion). 2. All Jewish texts that have entered “the canon” – including the Bible – in some way engage earlier texts, authorize them, and derive authority from them (issues of inter-textuality and of dialogue) 3. Textual tradition, much like a conversation, is not linear (it can , in fact, be elliptical). It is a circle rather than a line containing many points of entry. 4. There are three types of canons: 1) Normative (law codes) 2) Formative (providing a culture with a shared vocabulary – die schone Moshe veAronlech) 3) Exemplary (serving as paradigms, as something to be emulated) *Jewish canonical texts appear as all three. See: Halbertal Readings 5. Methodological question: who shapes these traditions? 7 iii. Success of proselytism contributed more money 4. Samaritans i. Had a different text of Torah ii. Did not accept the books of the prophets nor the writings. iii. Did not accept the oral law codifying with the Talmud iv. They did not recognized the temple mount in Jerusalem rather mt.Gerizim. 5. The earliest synagogues were at Masada, herodium, and Gamla – they date back to the 1rt century and possibly even earlier. i. Judaism could not have survived such a traumatic experience as the destruction of the 2nd temple had not alternative and supplementary institutions, such as prayer, the synagogue and the academy already had been in existence. ii. By the 1st century BCE, the great sages Hillel and Shammai had established rabbinic academies c. Jewish Sects 1. The Jerusalem Talmud says there were 24 sects (San. 10.6) i. Josephus tells us about the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essences, and the Fourth Philosophy. a. We have no writings of the Sadducees (unless you consider the dead sea scrolls as such b. Only some writings of the Samaritans 2. The movements in the 1st century can be divided into two groups: those who wanted to make a mass appeal and those who were separatists. d. The Rabbinic Sources 10 1. There are no written sources dating from the 1st century i. The oldest extant code of Jewish law is the Mishmash (200CE) ii. It is a legal code of 63 tractates iii. Few references to historical events ________________________________________________________________________ Question: How does canonization affect not only the status of a text, but the way it is perceived and read? Turn to Eccl. 7.15; Compare 12.12 – 12.13 What does the word SEFER mean? See: Exodus 24:4-8. “Moses then wrote down all the commands of the Lord….Then he took the record of the covenant (Sefer) and read it outloud.” **Compare to Joshua 1.8; Josh 24:26 The writing and the reading of the book is part of a covenant- sealing ceremony that includes the ritual spilling of the blood of the sacrifice and throwing the blood on both parties to the contract: Israel and the alter that represents God. Psalm 119 – learning is a constant source of joy and religious intimacy; the Torah becomes interchangeable with God. 119:97: How greatly do I love your Torah it is my study all day long.” Halbertal: (1)Canon established about 150 BCE (2)By establishing a canon, we lose the original meaning since the meaning of the text needs to be in accord with the religion. (3)There is a tension in the sealing of the canon which does not exist in an open canon. It is the paradoxical outcome of the sealing itself: the act of awarding exclusive authority places out of reach the activity which first created the canon. New 11 authority is coterminous with new interpretation. *When prophet legislation ended and the text was sealed as a consequence, text became self-referential in a circular way. Book of Joshua: (p.21) Had Joshua been a better interpreter of Torah, he wouldn’t have been a military commander. The midrash reflects the transtion of prophecy to rabbinic interpretation (when prophecy becomes halakhcially forbidden), and it also expresses implicit pride in the new figure of the Torah Scholar and his superiority over the man if war. The transition from priest to scholar: Now the expert’s authority is derived not from his exclusive role in the ritual, but from his skills as interpreter of the sealed text. 12 with the authority to promulgate new laws (interpretations justify this). (1)They are self-empowered to establish new laws (2)Regardless of metaphysical truths, they place authority on human opinion d) See Berakhot 27b (1)We develop a good idea of the rabbis’ personalities (2)They are self-confident, proud, power hungry, easily offended, yet remarkably innovative, brilliant, and thoughtful. (3)Establishes a personality that affords rabbis to interpret and create new laws (4)There are obviously positive and negative aspects of these personalities. (5)Interestingly, R. Akiba is the greatest Ta’anaic interpreter of the Torah. R. Judah the prince was a disciple of R. Akiba, thus Akiba is preserved as the central character in the Mishnah. e) See Menachot 29b: (1)celebrates Akiba as the founder (in a way) of the oral Torah (2)Akibah’s martyrdom (3)Asks how we account for evil. Why do bad things happen to good people – God famously remarks, this is “my decree.” Compare to Berakhot 61b V. Midrash Rabba and Midrash a) 6th and 7th century redactions, but could be as old as the 3rd century b) derives from Palestine, not Babylonia c) It is exegetical and sermonic d) It is the designation of a particular genre of rabbinic literature constituting an anthology and compilation of homilies – consisting of both biblical exegesis (hermeneutics) and sermons delivered in public as well as 15 aggodot and halakhot. They form a running commentary on specific books of the TaNaKh. (1)Midrash derives from the root DRSH which means “to seek,” or “to examine” – See Lev. 10.16; Deut. 13.15; Isa. 55.6 (2)The noun Midrash appears only twice in the TaNaKh: II Chron. 13.22 and 24.27 (3)Complete works belonging to this genre are known only from rabbinic literature. (4)It is entirely possible that the earliest Midrash to come down is the Passover Haggadah, the earliest and chief element of which is a midrash to Deut. 26. 5-8 (5)Aggadic – is for the most part an amplification of these portions of the TaNaKh, which include narrative, history, ethical maxim and aphorisms, and consolations of the prophets. (6)Halakhic – the legal side; sources of authority: (i) the written law; (ii) statements handed down by tradition (Kabbalah), (iii) Oral Law (includes interpretations of written law), (iv) Interpretation of written law, (v) Halakhah given to Moses at Sinai, (vi) logical deduction, (vii) Saying of the Scribes and Elders, (viii) Authority of Sages, (ix) Minhagim (customs) e) Aggadic Midrash [Can be divided into three groups: early, middle, and late) (1)Dating these texts can be extraordinarily difficult: (2)Early [400-600 CE] (i) The oldest is Bereshit [Genesis] Rabba (ii) Proems – they start and end w/ a verse (iii) Exegetical v. Homiletically – interpretations based on one book as opposed to interpretations on myriad textual resources. (3)Middle [640-900 CE] 16 (i) After the Muslim conquest there is a gradual strengthening in the influence of the apocalyptic literature from the 2nd Temple, which had been disregarded by the Talmudic rabbis (as against Christianity). This influence is apparent in both form and content. (ii) In content, there is an increase not only in homilies, which refer to angels and demons, the garden of Eden and Gehenom (Hell), but even the complete topics from apocalyptic literature. (iii) In form, there is an increase in the type of aggadic work, which does not belong to the genre of Midrash at all. In fact, this type is not a compilation, but a unified work impressed w/ the seal of the author, who is a narrator but chooses to attribute his words to the ancients and to ascribe to them statements that they never made. There is also a difference in language. The Galilean Aramaic of the early Midrashim progressively disappears, as does rabbinical Hebrew. Instead there is a use of artificial Hebrew, apparently from the influence of Aramaic and Greek. (4)Late [900-1200 CE] (i) In these midrashim, there is hardly a trace of an intention of the classical proem, the Hebrew is medieval. Key Terms: Mishnah and Midrash **Remember that Midrash is exegetical. It uses verse, de- contextualizes and deals with hermeneutical problems (although do not confound disagreement with a celebration of the multiplicity of ideas). Mishnah is not exegetical. The point is not to explain Scripture, in fact, it is not ordered by Scripture. Law is crucial and absolute answers are required. They are similar in that they both cite multiple opinions. (See: Fishbane, pp. 43-49; Halbertal, pp.50-71 – Remember the differences between: the “Retrieval Model,” “Cumulative view,” and the “Constitutive view”) 17 unit of exegesis is a midrash (with a small ‘m’). Individual midrashim (pl.) were composed by individual rabbis or schools over time; at later times they were collected and edited into collections. These collections have a variety of names. Some we shall be reading are the Mekhiltah, Sifra, Sifri, and Midrash Rabbah (“The Great Midrash”) which has volumes corresponding to various books of Scripture, e.g., Bereshit (Genesis) Rabbah. Midrash has two kinds of subjectmatter which are called, respectively, midrash halakhah and midrash aggadah. Halakhah: literally means ‘(the) way of going’ and refers to the rabbinic laws that govern how one ought to act in all the spheres of human private and public life—ritual, cultic, civil, and ethical. An individual law is called a halakhah (pl.: halakhot), and ‘Halakhah’ (whether or not in caps) also refers to Law (as a subject matter). Within rabbinic Judaism the legal notion of halakhah develops in contrast to an earlier legal notion of ma‘aseh which is probably derived from the phrase ma‘aseh bet din (lit: “an act/judgment of the court”). On the earlier notion of ma‘aseh, (1) the normative authority of the legal decision derives from the identity of its promulgator, the authority or decider in question, e.g., the institutional authority of the court, and (2) decisions were for particular cases, one by one. In contrast, ‘halakhah’ refers to a law whose normative force rests on its rational deduction from a legal source, e.g., Scripture (or in later periods, the Mishnah) and which is general, applying to all cases of a given type. Aggadah (also: Haggadah): literally derived from the verb ‘to tell’ or ‘to recite’ and refers as an umbrella term to all non-legal subjectmatter in rabbinic literature: non-legal scriptural exegesis, extra-biblical legends (about biblical figures, events), stories about the rabbis, folklore, history, homiletical remarks, ethics, customs, science, theology, theosophy, and more. Midrash halakhah/aggadah: Corresponding to the two kinds of subjectmatter, halakhah and aggadah, there are two kinds of midrash or scriptural exegesis: midrash halakhah (legal exegesis, the derivation of legal norms from the words or verses of Scripture) and midrash aggadah (non-legal, or aggadic, exegesis, elaborating on the scriptural stories or deriving homiletical or ethical lessons from Scripture). Talmud: (lit: “study” or “learning”): Designates the composite work that consists of the Mishnah supplemented or accompanied by its analysis and discussion by the Gemara. There are two Talmuds, the Palestinian or Jerusalem and the Babylonian. The first was redacted in 400 C.E., the second around 500 C.E. (See below on Gemara.) 20 Each order is composed of individual tractates (or treatises) on specific topics; each tractate contains chapters organized around subtopics, and each chapter is composed of individual mishnayot. There do not necessarily exist Gemorot for each Mishnaic tractate. Mishnah: Edited, redacted, and published c. 200 C.E., traditionally attributed to R. Judah the Prince (HaNasi). We will discuss what kind of work the Mishnah is later in the quarter. Suffice it to say for now that it is mainly concerned with rabbinic law and holds the status of the first canonical, authoritative rabbinic text. The rabbis whose views are cited in the Mishnah are known as tannaim (sing.: tanna, Aram., lit. ‘teacher,’ from teni, “to hand down orally,” or “to repeat”), and designates the scholars from the period of Hillel (c. 20 C.E.) to the redaction of the Mishnah. (There is also a second, narrower use of the term ‘tanna’ to designate those students who were chosen to memorize and recite from memory the mishnayot and other rabbinic texts before the masters and his students in the rabbinic academies or houses of study.) The Mishnah is divided into six orders, each order into tractates, each tractate into chapters, and each chapter into individual mishnayot (pl.), each a roughly paragraph-length topic. Gemara (lit: the “completion” or “tradition,” i.e., of the Mishnah): The record of discussions and elaborations of the Mishnah in the various academies or by individual scholars known as Amoraim (sing.: amora, Aram., lit: “expounder” or “interpreter” [of the Mishnah]. Corresponding to the different schools, discussions, and traditions in Palestine and Babylonia after 200 C.E., there are two different Gemarot, the Jerusalem (i.e., Palestinian; composed in the Galilee, not in Jerusalem despite the name) and the Babylonian. So, corresponding to the different dates when these two Talmuds were completed, the amoraim are those rabbis in Palestine until roughly 400 C.E. and in Babylonia until roughly 500 C.E. We will discuss the character of the gemara at much greater length during the quarter. 21 Class 2: What is Judaism? 1. Explain how the biblical narrative embodies a “living word” for Jews. 2. How is Judaism a “positive religion?” Compare Gershom Scholem’s definition of Judaism to Michael Fishbane’s. 3. What connects Jews worldwide and cross-generationally, despite linguistic, cultural, historical and myriad other differences? 4. Explain Fishbane’s claim that: “Judaism is thus the religious expression of the Jewish people from antiquity to the present day as it has tried to form and live a life of holiness before God.” Is Judaism static? How is the divine voice continually heard? 5. What is the Talmud? 6. In the Hebrew Bible, what is the central moment of ancient Israelite history and religion? 7. According to Fishbane, what is a Jewish “myth of orginis?” How is it formulated? What purpose does it serve for later traditions? How does every student of the Law renew the first giving of the Torah at Sinai? 8. Kindly analyze the legend found in the Book of the Pious. What is the difference between a sage and a simple herdsman? What is at stake for the continuity of the religion as well as commitment to God’s commandments? How is piety taught? 9. What is the Shema? 10. Why isn’t Judaism a “timeless essence” according to Fishbane? How can we speak of Judaism? What are the constitutive elements defining it? What does Kugel say about the essence of Judaism? Do Fishbane and Kugel agree? Why or why not? 11. When do Jews become a “true religious peoplehood?” Why is this important? Kindly describe the complexity of the biblical concept “chosenness.” Does it have any precedents in the ancient world? What modes of association does Judaism employ? How does Judaism incorporate both particularistic and universalistic elements into its religion? 22 Class 4: The Concept of Tradition II: The Written Torah and the Oral Torah 1. Texts: Exodus 19-20; Deuteronomy 31.16-30 (esp. 24-26) and 34; II Kings 22-23; Nehemiah 8; Mishneh Avot ch. 1 What connects these passages, for the purpose of this class, is to examine the ways the term “Torah” is understood. Also, we will examine the function of the reading of Torah (See: class 3). a) How does the conception of the revelation/giving/receiving/transmission of the Torah in Exodus differ from that of Mishneh Avot? b) What is the significance of putting into writing the “words of Torah” in Deuteronomy 31 and its transmission to Joshua? c) In Deuteronomy 34, what problem is raised in regards to the composition of the Torah? d) In regards the a,b,c, above, what sort of event is described in the passage from II Kings? What is the role of “reading the scroll of the Torah” in this event? Compare it to the situation in Nehemiah 8. e) How is the situation in Nehemiah 8 different from the revelation at Sinai in Exodus 19-20? Who attends? Where is it held? What is the function of reading the scroll in Nehemiah? What other activities accompany it? Is there a possible development in the activity of reading the teaching within this chapter (see v.18)? f) In Avot, what is the point of explaining the order of the transmission of Torah? Are there any significant changes or developments in the transmission process? What else is described in the first chapter of Avot? If you were to draw any generalizations from these passages in regards to the beliefs and theology of the Sages here, what would they be? What themes are emphasized? 2. Texts: Genesis 1.1-2.4; Exodus 20.8-11; 31.12-17; Deuteronomy 5.12-15; Mishnah Shabbat 7.1-2 25 a) Explain the “prohibition of ‘work’ on the Sabbath.” What might be the significance of the context of the discussion of the Sabbath in Exodus 31? b) How does the Mishnah interpret the scriptural notion of work? What is the logic to the laws of punishment for desecrating the Sabbath described in 7.1? What is the order to the classes of work described in 7.2? (Small hint: what is the sequence constituted by the first eleven classes of work? The next nine? The last six? What is the significance of the entire sequence of 39?) 3. Texts: Exodus 23.19, 34.26; Deuteronomy 14.21; Mishnah Hullin 8.1-4 a) Compare the three statements of the same prohibition (cooking a calf in its mother’s millk) in the Torah. Are all three instances the same? What are the contexts for each? Are we provided any hint for the reason behind this prohibition? b) How does the Mishnah interpret the prohibition? What problems are the rabbis concerned with to which they want to apply the scriptural law? What is the disagreement between the schools of Shammai and Hillel? 4. The Oral Law – Texts: BT Shabbat 31a; BT Shabbat 23a; BT Sanhedrin 99a; Thirteen Hermeneutical Principles of R. Ishmael; BT Megillah 3a; BT ‘Eruvin 54b; BT Temurah 16a; BT Baba Metzia 59a-b; BT Berakhot 27b-28a. a) These texts indicate a part of what is known in and out of rabbinic literature about the existence of oral traditions in post-Biblical Judaism. They also demonstrate how the rabbis themselves viewed the difference between the Written and Oral Torot (pl. Torah). What sorts of teachings seem to describe the idea of an Oral Torah? b) Compare and contrast the various suggestions about the nature, origin, and scope of the Oral Torah in these passages? c) What do the rabbis suggest as the reason(s) for an Oral as well as written Torah? Why is the Oral Torah indeed oral? How was the Oral Torah transmitted (see: Eruvin 54b)? 26 Why can’t it be written down? What is the rabbis’ view of the justification for their won authority (see: Shabbat 23a and Sanhedrin 99a)? d) What criticisms are the rabbis responding to in Temurah 16a? What do the rabbis think was revealed if the Oral Torah to Moses at Sinai and, if it was revealed, what is discovered by the later rabbis (See: Megillah 3a, Temurah 16a)? e) The thirteen Hermeneutical Principles of R. Ishmael were almost certainly espoused at a later date, but they seem to express the kinds of principles of reasoning and legal exegesis that rabbis employed for the creation of the oral Torah. Compare these principles to the rabbis’ demonstrations in the other texts. Is their logic familiar to you? f) What is the point of the story in Shabbat 31a? What are the personalities of Hillel and Shammai like? g) In Berakhot 27b-28a, how is R. Gamliel described? How does this depiction of him compare to others in these sources? What seems to be at stake in his disagreement with R. Joshua? 5. Texts: BT Menachot 29b; Berakhot 61b; Selection from Mekhilta, Shirata (trans. Jacob Lauterbach) 1.1-3 a) All these passages concern R. Akiba, his role as a sage and exponent of the Oral Law, and martyrdom. What seems to be the connection? b) What is the view of Moses and his relation to the Oral Law in Menachot 29b? In the Mekhilta, we find a different notion of how Jews ought to “glorify” God. What are the differences between R. Akiba and the Mekhilta? c) What is the relation between R. Akiba’s opening statement and the dialogue between Israel and the nations of the world in what follws? How is his view in this midrash related to how R. Akibah is portrayed in other texts? What is the view of the sages as explained in the parable they give? 27 (“incense”). The Midrash then goes on to contruct similar world-plays on another word debir, but you aren’t required to pursue this one – feel free to save it for a rainy, snowy day. Compare these accounts of the palce with the midrash on the name ‘Adonai Jir’eh in 10 (p. 500). f) In LVI, 8, the midrash contrasts Abraham with Balaam (cf. Numbers 22). Why is there this typological contrast in this text? g) LVI, 6. This paragraph seems to be concerned with Midrash Halakhah (it is a legal question: whether or not ritual slaughtering –i.e. the slaughtering of animals either for sacrificial or personal use – must be with a “movable object,” i.e, an object not attached to the ground, like a knife or sharp stone.), rather than a purely aggadic question. What is Rab’s question? Is it answered? How? h) LVI, 11 (pp. 501-03): What is the conclusion of the Akedah according to the midrash? Does the scriptural story have an ending or, more importantly, an end or coherent point according to the midrash? Midrash Halakhah Text: 2 Maccabees 1.16, Mekhilta, Tractate Shabbata 1. 4-15 1. According to these passages, how should Jews act on the Sabbath in life-threatening circumstances? What are the circumstances described in the two passages? Are the circumstances the same or different? What sorts of acts might the individuals have performed and did not? Why not? 2. Mekhilta: a) p. 197, second paragraph: What kind of question is being raised when the midrash asks “why was this [Ex. 31.12] said” What is the answer? b) p. 197, third paragraph: Note the narrative structure. What can we learn from details like this about rabbinic life, its “institutional setting,” its mode of study? 30 c) P. 197, third paragraph: What kind of question is being asked when th midrash asks “whence do we know… Sabbath laws?” Is the question a normative one – i.e., how should we act? Or are the rabbis certain of how to act and asking something else? If so, what? How is this question different from the the earlier question raised in the first paragraph? What does this question have to do with Exodus 31? d) pp. 197-99: We find six answers to the above question. It may be helpful to divide the answers into two groups of three. i) How are the first three different from the second three? ii) What is the logic of the first three? iii) Are they related – is there any progression or development among the first three opinions? How are the answers related to the scriptural lesson in Exodus 31.12- 17? iv) Beginning with R. Jose the Galilean, we are given a second set of three answers to the original question. What are they? Do you see any relation among them? What might be the aim of the midrash in giving them in the order given? e) p. 199, last paragraph: A more literal translation (in place of the first sentence after the verse) might read: “This is the verse about which R. Simon… used to say…” Note that this same statement occurred earlier (p. 198). What is the difference between the two occurrences? Likewise, compare the opinion of R. Nathan cited on p. 203, second paragraph (which also would be more literally translated as: “this is the verse about which R. Nathan… used to say…”) with his opinion cited on p. 199, top. What is the differnce? f) p. 200, second paragraph: What is at stake in this midrash? What is the opinion? g) pp.200-5: What further motifs run through this selection? What does the Sabbath theologically symbolize for the midrash? How is it related to circumcision, the Temple, cult, the afterlife, and resurrection of the dead? 31 Class 7: Mishnah, Talmud, and Law I 1. Who edited the Mishnah? What makes it so unique, according to Halbertal? In regards of E.D. Hirsch’s contentions about hermeneutical strategies, what makes interpretation of the Mishnah so difficult? 2. Why is prophecy an unreliable source of authority according to the Mishnah? Explain Halbertal’s position that the Torah is no the direct medium of expression of God’s authority, but rather an authorized text. How does the sealing of Scripture play a role in this conception of prophecy? 3. What legitimizes an interpreter? 4. What makes tractate Eduyot so unusual? [See also: Class 8] 5. Why does the Mishnah preserve the minority opinion? Is it s mere anthology of rabbinic opinions? Why do the rabbis interpret controversy? 6. Explain Abraham ibn Daud’s “retrieval model” of interpretation. What role doe sthe Halakhah play in this model? According to ibn Daud, are there any controversies that exist that concern the main body of Halakhah? If so, why? If not, why? Who are the most authoritative Sages for ibn Daud, early ones or later ones? Why? How does ibn Daud explain the emergence of controversy: is it a crisis within the process of transmission of tradition, or is it an “internal element” of tradition? Does the Mishnah or Talmud hold more authority for ibn Daud? What does this tell us about his view of tradition? 7. Does Karaism reject or accept the idea of an “authoritative interpreter?” Why or why not? 8. Explain Maimonides “cumulative view” of interpretation. What, according to Halbertal, makes his method so novel? How does Maimonides view his model compared to ibn Daud’s? How does controversy emerge in Maimonides’ view? What role does revelation play, then, in regards to controversy, for Maimonides? 9. Explain Nachmanides’ “constitutive view.” How is Halakhah understood within this view? What role does the interpreter play here? Is there a “true meaning” to the text? If so, why? If not, why? 32 adequately, controversies multiplied in Israel and the result was a Torah divided into two.” From: Tosefta Sota: 9-12, and BT Hagigah 3a “Said R. Elezar b. Azariah: ‘the words of the wise are as goads, and as nails well planted by masters of assemblies that are given from one shepherd’ [Eccl. 12.11]. ‘And as nails well planted’ – just as a plant bears fruit and multiplies, so the words of Torah bear fruit and multiply. ‘Masters of assemblies’ – those who go in and seat themselves in groups and declare the unclean, unclean and the clean, clean, unclean in one place and clean in another place. Lest a man think: Whereas the School of Shammai declare unclean and the School of Hillel declare clean, one man forbids and another permits, why should I learn Torah anymore? Therefore, it says: ‘Words.’ ‘The Words,’ These be the words; [Deut. 1.1] – ‘All these words’ [Ex. 19.1] were given by ‘one shepherd’; one God created them, one elder gave them; the Lord of all creation, blessed by He, said it. SO you too shall fill your heart with chambers and makre room for the words of the Schools of Shammai and for the words of the School of Hillel, the words of those who declare unclean and those who declare clean.” From: Mishnah Avot 5.17 “Any controversy that is for the sake of heaven shall be in the end of last worth, but any that is not for the sake of heaven shall not be in the end of lasting worth. Which controversy was for the sake of heaven? Such was the controversy of Korah and all his company.” ________________________________________________________________________ Class 9: Medieval Jewish Biblical Exegesis: Karaites, Abraham Ibn Ezra, and the Emergence of Peshat I “From the 8th century onward, in Iraq, Judeo-Arabic paraphrases of biblical texts begin to appear, replacing Aramaic works of a similar nature. These are the precursors of the commentary genre. By the middle of the 9th century, a steady stream of commentaries begins to flow through the veins of the Jewish body politic, nourishing and invigorating it, and providing instruction and inspiration for each succeeding generation.” 35 (1)The exposure to Islamic philosophy, especially Mutazilite Kalam, was a powerful factor and left a distinct stamp of rationalism on the works of the period. (2)Under the influence of Arabic philology and linguistics the series study of the Hebrew language was undertaken, dictionaries were written, and rules, often derived from the Arabic grammarian’s study of Quranic grammar, began to be defined for Hebrew Grammar. (3)Although the message of the Bible is still understood as divine, the medium is human, and follows the conventions of human speech and communication. The Karaites I. By questioning the validity of the ORAL LAW and its supremacy over the written, and its sometimes idiosyncratic interpretations and occasional contradictions of the biblical text, this movement challenged the authority of RABBINIC LEADERSHIP. (a)They advocated a return to Scripture (b)They ridiculed the rabbinic teachings of the text, which were difficult to justify on rational grounds. (c) The founder was Anan ben David (mid-8th century) II. The Karaites, who coalesced into a movement in the 10th century, were the first Jewish group to produce full-fledged scriptural commentaries. (a)The first exegete was Benjamin al-Nahawandi (first half of the 9th century) (b)Earliest extant complete Jewish commentary is Daniel al Qumisi’s commentary on the minor prophets III. Jacob al-Kirkisani (contemporary of Saadia Gaon) (a)Wrote two major works in Arabic (1)A legal code called KITAB AL-ANWAR WA’L MARAAQIB (“Book of Lights and Watchtowers) 36 (2)A Commentary of the Torah called KITAB AL-RIYAD WA’L HADA’IQ (“Book of Gardens and Parks”) IV. In the 10th Century, Jerusalem became the spiritual center of Karaism. (a)The greatest Karaite exegete was Japheth ben Eli – he was the only exegete to have translated and commented upon the entire Bible (b)Commentraies were produced to provide the Karaite commuity with an adequate treatment of scripture, which could hold its own against traditional rabbinic exegesis – especially the sophisticated treatment of his formidable Rabbanite opponent Saadia Gaon. SEE: L. Nemoy’s “Introduction” The Rabbanites I. The most prominent Rabbanite exegete of this period is Saadia Gaon (882-942 CE) (a)Saadia translated most of the Hebrew Bible into Arabic (b)He wrote commentaries on many books of the Torah, Isaiah, Proverbs, Job, and some of the five scrolls. (c) He prefaced his commentaries with detailed instructions discussing grammatical, exegetical, and philosophical issues. (d)He polemicized against the Karaites. (e)Saadia famously set down several principles of interpretation (See: Introduction to his commentary on the Torah). HE AFFIRMED THE NECESSITY OF UNDERSTANDING TO BIBLICAL TEXTS ACCRODING TO THE PLAIN MEANING OF THE WORDS, EXCEPT FOR THE FOLLOWING: (1)if experience and sense perception contradict the plain meaning (i.e. Gen. 2.20) (2)if reason contradicts the plain sense (i.e. Deut. 4.24) (3)when verses contradict eachother (i.e. Mal. 3.10 and Deut. 6.16) (4)When a verse contradicts established customs (i.e. Ex. 23.19; 34.26; Deut. 14.21). 37 I. The production of Bibles with the biblical text surrounded by commentaries and translations began in the late Middle Ages, as scribes copied for themselves or patrons commissioned such works for their own use. (a)The first Rabbinic Bible was published by Daniel Bomberg in 1516 in Venice and included commentaries of RASHI, ibn Ezra, and Ramban. (b)Other editions followed: Venice (1524-25, 1544), The second Rabbinic Bible (1524-25) [ed. Jacob be Hayyim ben Isaac ibn Adonijah, 1470-1538] (c) Early in the 19th century the Miqra’ot Gedolot (“Great Scriptures”) were issued. (1)Besides the classic triumvirate of rashi, ibn Ezra, and Ramban, the Keli yakar (“precious Vessel”) by Ephraim of Luntshitz and Or ha-Hayim (“Light of Life”) by Hayyim ibn ‘Attar seem ti have been popular and gained wide readership. (2)For Prohets and Writings, the Metzudot of the Altschulers were constant companions of RASHI. (3)Depending on the book, they were usually joined by ibn Ezra, Radak, Ralbag, and Sforno. (4)Inclusion in an edition of the Miqra’ot Gedolot would ensure wide readership ________________________________________________________________________ Class 10:Medieval Jewish Biblical Exegesis II 1. Anan b. David (pp. 11-20) a) pp. 11-12: What is Anan’s general attitude toward the observance of law in Judaism? How does it seem to differ from the Rabbinite, or rabbinic, view from the Mishnah? b) pp. 13-15: How does Anan seem to interpret the law of talionis [Ex. 21.24-25]? Does an “eye for an eye” refer to the actual physical limb or organ or to monetary compensation? c) pp. 16-17: How does Anan reach the conclusion that only pigeons and turtledoves are permissible foods? To what extent does this example support the claim that Karaities rely only only Scripture themselves as the sole source of the law? 40 d) pp. 17-18: The Sabbath: What is the context in Numbers of the verse cited in 1? Why should this verse be relevant to the Sabbath? Based on your knowledge of rabbinic law, how does Anan’s legal interpretation doffer from it? 2. Jacob al-Kirkisani [pp. 53-68] – he has been called the greatest Karaite mind of the first half of the tenth century, even though very little is known about him. a) What are al-Kirkisani’s principles of biblical exegesis? b) In what sense is he a scriptural “literalist”? c) How does his approach to interpreting the Hebrew Bible differ from Anan b. David? 3. ibn Ezra a) What doe we learn for the introductory poem about ibn Ezra’s self image? What is the significance of the fact that he begins a biblical commentary with a poem? b) The Introduction delineates fives approaches to biblical exegesis, the first four of which ibn Ezra roundly criticises and the on the fifth he presents his own position. Identify each of the first four positions. What are ibn Ezra’s crticisms of each? Try not to worry about the intricate details of ibn Ezra’s criticisms – especially in the second and fourth criticisms – rather try to determine the main arguments. c) How does ibn Ezra structure his Introduction? What is his tone throughout the Introduction ? d) How would you imagine the community reacted to his position and tone? e) What are ibn Ezra’s own principles of exegesis and how well do they seem to you to fit the definitions of Peshat proposed in the secondary literature? f) Contrast ibn Ezra’’s method of exegesis with that of al- Kirkisani. What are the similarities and differences? g) Does ibn Ezra hint at any possible difficulties with his own approach to scriptural interpretation? 41 h) In his commentary to Gen. 1.1, what problem does ibn Ezra address in his interpretation of the word “God” [Hebrew: Elohim]? What is his own explanation of the meaning of this word? What problems does this interpretation raise and how does ibn Ezra deal with them? i) What is the problem, for ibn Ezra, in Gen. 3.1? How does he deal with earlier attempts at solving this problem? What is his explanation for it? How does it reflect his own approach as described in the Introduction? j) How is ibn Ezra’s account of the Akedah different from that in the midrash? _______________________________________________________________________ Valuable Names, Terms, and Concepts R. Aqiba Lex Talionis Tanna and Amora Hillel and Shammai and their Schools Baraitha Sugya PeSHaT Halakhah and Aggadah – Know in Midrash Akedah Gemara Rodef Canons: Open and Closed, Normative and Formative (see Halbertal) “Canonization of controversy” (see Halbertal) Exilarch Shema PaRDeS Mitzvah Talmud Judah the Prince Oral Torah Saadiah Gaon Gaon ‘Amidah or Tefillah (Eighteen Benedictions) The Mishnah: case-book or book of statutes? _______________________________________________________________________ 42 4 Internal fighting between Herod’s sons over succession CE 6 Roman government assumes direct rule in Judea 20 Deaths of Shammai and Hillel 26-36 Pontius Pilate is Roman governor of Judea 30 (?) Crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth 66-70 Great Revolt against Rome 70 Destruction of the Second Temple 74 Fall of Masada 70s Sanhedrin reassembles in Yavneh, led first by R. Johanan ben Zakkai and other sages, succeeded by R. Gamliel 132-35 Revolt of Bar Kokhba 135 Sever persecution of Jews in Palestine; martyrdom of R. Akiba and other sages 140s-50s End of persecutions; Sanhedrin reassembles in Galilee 170-217 Patriarchate of Judah; leader of Jews in Roman Empire 200 Mishnah is redacted 200-400 Rise of Babylonian scholar class. Exilarchate established; Babylonian yeshivot established 400-450 Redaction of the Jerusalem (Palestinean) Talmud in Galilee 420s Office of Patriarch abolished by Roamn Government 500 Redaction of the Babylonian Talmud 500-600 Age of Babylonian Saboraim 571-632 Muhammad 589 Traditional Date for the beginning of the Gaonic period 612 Persecution of Jews in Visigothic Spain by Sisebut 614 Jews return to Jerusalem during Persian invasion of Palestine 618-670 Bustanai, the first Exilarch of the Arab period 622 The Hegira: Muhammad’s flight from Mecca to Medina 629 Byzantine reoccupation is fllowed by Christian reprisals 630s-40s Arab Conquests of Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Persia 661-750 Umayyad Caliphate 692 Judaism is outlawed in Spain 711-12 Muslim conquest of Spain (with widespread Jewish support) 750-1258 Abbasid Caliphate 756 Independent Ummayad Caliphate of Cordova established in Spain 762 Baghdad founded; becomes religious center of Jews in Babylonia 762-67 Anan b. David breaks with Rabbanites: the beginnings of the Karaites 797 Charlemagne sends Isaac the Jew as an emissary to Harun al-Rashid 45 800 Charlemagne, King of the Franks crowned Roman emperor in the West by the Pope 814-840 Reign of Louis the Pious, son of Charlemagne – Jewish traders given favourable privileges as “merchants of the palace.” 825 Authority of Exilarch over the geonim begins to decline 830-60 Benjamin of Nahawend; considerable growth of Karasim 882-941 Saadia Gaon of Sura 915-975 Hasdai ibn Shaprut, Government Administrator and Patron of Jewish learning and Art, Cordova 960-1028 Gershom ben Judah of Mainz, one of the first great Ashkenazic Talmudists 968-1006 Sherira ben Hanina serves as gaon of Pumbeditha; author (987) of a letter explaining how the Mishnah and Talmud were compiled 993-1056 Samuel ibn Nagrela, first Nagid of Spain, Poet, Scholar, and Patron 1008 Jews of Egypt persecuted by al-Hakim 1020-57 Solomon ibn Gabirol, poet and Neo-Platonist philosopher, Spain 1038 Hai Gaon dies: last important Gaon in the East 1040-1105 Rashi of Troyes: Biblical and Talmudic commentator 1055-1135 Moses ibn Ezra, poet and literary theorist, Spain 1066 Assasination of Joseph ha-Nagid; massacre of Jews in Granada 1066 Jews settle in England 1075-1141 Judah Halevi, Poet and Philosopher; 1140 leaves Spain for Palestine 1085 Christians recapture Toledo 1089-1164 Abraham ibn Ezra, Poet and Biblical Commentator 1090 Almoravids (N. African Berbers) conquer Spain; Jewish quarter of Granada destroyed a second time 1095-6 First Crusade; Massacre of Rhineland Jews by crusaders 1099-1187 Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 1100-1171 Jacob ben Meir Tam, one of the first of the Tosafists 1125-1198 Abraham ben David of Posquières, a Talmudist of southern France 1135-1204 Moses Maimonides: Emigrates from Cordova to N. Africa, Palestine (1165), and then Egypt (Fustat-Cairo); Author of Commentary on the Mishnah (1168), Mishneh Torah (1180), and Guide of the Perplexed (1190) 1144 Riutal murder charge against Jews at Norwich 1145-1149 The second crusade 1147-60 Almohade invasion of Andalusia and persecution of Jews 1150-1217 Judah he-Haisd of Regensberg, an Ashkenazi pietist 1152-1190 Reign of Frederik I Barbarossa, Holy Roam Emporer 46 1160-61 Abraham ibn Daud (1110-1180) composes Sefer Ha- Qabbalah 1160-1235 Isaac the Blind, son of Abraham ben David of Posquières and early Kabbalist 1171 End of the Fatimid Caliphate; Maimonides becomes leader of Egyptian Jewry 1171 Blood libel at Blois, the first in France 1171-1250 Ayyubid Dynasty established in Egypt and Syria by Saladin 1182-1198 Expulsion of Jews from the royal domain in France by Philip II Augustus 1187 Saladin defeats Crusaders at the Horns of Hattin; fall of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 1189-1192 The Third Crusade 1189-1199 Richard I, Coeur de Lion, King of England 1190 Massacre of Jews at York 1194-1270 Moses ben Nahman, Spanish talmudist, biblical commentator, mystic 1198-1202 Forced conversion of Jews in Yemen and Aden under self- styled Caliph al-Malik al Mu’izz Isma’il; Maimonides writes Epistle of the Yemenites 1204 After death of Moses Maimonides, leadership of Egyptian Jewry becomes hereditary within the Maimonides family 1215-1293 Meir ben Baruch of Rothenburg, Talmudic authority and last of great tosafists 1232-3 First Maimonidean Controversy (involves R. Meir Abulafia, Nahmanides, R. David Kimhi) 1235-1310 Solomon ibn Adret, rabbi of Barcelona and Talmudic scholar 1240 Disputation of Paris leading to the burning of the Talmud in 1242 1244 Charter of Frederick II, Duke of Austria 1250-1517 Mamluk Empire in Syria, Egypt and Palestine 1255 Ritual murder charge at Lincoln 1258 Baghdad captured by the Monguls under Huelague’ end of the Abbasid Caliphate and beginning of Ilkhanid dynasty, no distinction between Muslim and dhimmis 1261-1328 Immanuel of Rome, Hebrew Poet 1263 Disputation of Barcelona 1264 Charter of Prince Boleslav the Pious of Poland 1270-1340 Jacob ben Asher, rabbinic codifier, author of Arba’ah Turim 1286 Completion of Zohar by Moses de Leon 1288 Blood Libel of Troyes 1288-1344 Levi ben Gershom (Gersonides), scientist and philosopher 1290 Expulsion of Jews from England 1291 Assimination of Saad al-Dawla and other Jewish officials of the Ilkhanids; anti-Jewish riots in Iraq 47