Teachers’ Perceptions of Strategy Based Reading Instruction for Reading Comprehension, Exams of English

Download Teachers’ Perceptions of Strategy Based Reading Instruction for Reading Comprehension and more Exams English in PDF only on Docsity! Reading Comprehension 1 TITLE PAGE Teachers’ Perceptions of Strategy Based Reading Instruction for Reading Comprehension Katherine D. Gibson Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Education School of Education Dominican University of California San Rafael, CA June 2009 Reading Comprehension 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to express how appreciative she is to those who assisted her through this research process, especially: Professor Madalienne Peters for her support and expertise during this process; Karey Gauthier for her assistance during the final phase; my classmates at Dominican for their feedback, advice, and support during this process; Mary Altshuler, my 3rd grade team teaching partner at San Domenico School. Mary introduced me to, and mentored me through strategy based reading instruction for the last 4 years. She is the reason why I believe in strategy based reading instruction. A special thank you to the San Domenico School faculty and administrators for promoting strategy based reading instruction across all grade levels, and for their assistance in supporting my efforts to return to graduate school to obtain my master’s degree. Finally, special thanks to my parents, siblings, and friends for supporting me through the entire experience of gaining my master’s. Without your untiring, positive presence, I could not have done it. Reading Comprehension 5 ABSTRACT Strategy based reading instruction helps teachers differentiate the teaching of reading. It also supports many types of readers by explicitly teaching and modeling reading comprehension strategies. The purpose of this study is to explore the effectiveness of strategy based reading instruction for improving student reading comprehension. Additionally, it examines teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of this approach. The review of the literature supports the idea that strategy based reading instruction is an effective way to improve reading comprehension. Teachers in kindergarten through eighth grade were surveyed on their perceptions of strategy based reading instruction’s effectiveness for improving reading comprehension. Results indicated that the teachers enjoy using this method and that it is an effective way to improve reading comprehension. Reading Comprehension 6 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION It was winter of 2007, and part of my class was reading Stone Fox. There were students in my group who had struggled with fluency and comprehension earlier in the year due to the fact that they were reading books above their reading level. After an entire fall of using the strategies of Stephanie Harvey, I could see my students’ faces light up as they read. The connections they made were powerful, and many of their predictions were accurate. In the last chapter of the book, the protagonist’s dog dies. There was not a dry eye in my class. Students were saddened and upset with the ending. They wanted to know why the author chose to do this and what would Little Willy do without his dog. When students connect to a text, and their comprehension is deeply rooted, they can experience the same emotions those characters are feeling. During my first year of teaching, my mentor teacher guided me through the entire process of strategy based reading instruction, and modeled how to use the different strategies with the students. Stephanie Harvey, literacy advocate, has coined the term “reading is thinking”, and that is exactly what strategy based reading instruction promotes: thinking about the texts. Strategy based instruction is teaching the reader, not merely the reading (Harvey, S. & Goudvis, A., 2007). Harvey describes strategy based instruction as teaching kids to use strategies purposefully when reading any text for any reason and to walk away from their reading experiences with new understandings that may generate more learning (2007). I was intrigued that a teacher could use the same strategy with emergent readers and proficient readers. I was first introduced to Stephanie Harvey’s reading strategies in Reading Comprehension 7 the fall of 2005, and today, I am still inspired with her teaching philosophies. I have been able to attend several of her workshops across the country. She has come twice to San Domenico School, where I teach. I believe in her reading strategies that are supported by many other literacy advocates. Statement of Problem Depending upon the school or school district, teachers are not always given the flexibility of deciding which type of reading program they would like to use. A strategy based reading instruction program is not an option for all teachers even though it teaches students how to think critically, monitors their comprehension levels, and instills a love of reading by using real books. The outcome of this project provides greater support for implementing strategy based reading instruction in more schools. Purpose The purpose of this study is to show that strategy based reading instruction is an effective way to improve reading comprehension. Additionally, it evaluates teachers’ perceptions of its effectiveness. The study identifies the strategies that good readers use when they read, how teachers should explicitly teach these strategies, and how to scaffold their students through this process. When teachers explicitly teach such reading strategies to their students from kindergarten through high school, students are able to develop higher-level thinking skills. This allows students to improve their reading comprehension. Reading Comprehension 10 Assumptions Starting in pre-K or kindergarten, children begin their journey of reading. Strategy based reading instruction is an effective way for teaching students of all ages to read, from their earliest ages throughout their schooling years. Educators are able to use strategies with all age groups, and with students of all levels of proficiency. Younger children, who cannot read texts themselves, are able to apply these strategies during read aloud sessions to begin to develop critical thinking skills. Strategy based reading programs promote and foster critical thinking of students. These strategies require students to dig deeper in order to deepen their understanding of the text. This is because students are thinking when they’re reading. Students are monitoring their thought processes and asking questions while they’re reading. When using strategy based reading programs, students are engaged with picture and chapter books. In fact, students of all ability levels are even able to apply these strategies when reading from newspapers, magazines, etc. By using real, authentic texts, students are enjoying the act of reading. Background and Need A study by Taylor, Pearson, Peterson, and Rodriguez, (2003) focusing on how teaching effects students’ reading achievement, discovered that teachers who emphasized higher-order thinking promoted greater reading growth in their classrooms. What is significant about this study is who the researchers observed. The focus was on 88 teachers and 9 randomly selected students per classroom in 9 high-poverty schools across the United States. Literacy instruction, specifically reading, was the target curriculum Reading Comprehension 11 area. The findings concluded that teachers who emphasized critical thinking, either through the questions they asked or the tasks they assigned, resulted in improved reading comprehension. Educators in these classrooms utilized many of Harvey’s reading strategies. Some of the strategies that were explicitly taught and modeled to the students were: making connections, questioning, and inferring while being engaged with the text. Taylor et al. (2003) determined that effective reading instruction encompasses teachers who challenge their students with higher-level thinking, and the application of reading strategies to their reading and writing. Effective teachers use coaching and modeling to help students learn, as well as to help them assume responsibility for their own learning (Taylor, et al, 2003). In addition to the Taylor et al. (2003) study, there are many other studies and research findings that compliment the notion that strategy based reading instruction can improve reading comprehension. Recent research, such as 7 Keys of Comprehension by Zimmerman and Hutchins (2003), has been able to identify what good readers do while reading. Literacy researchers have been able to extract from those studies and have agreed upon the seven key strategies that encourage reading comprehension and growth. Those strategies are: creating visualizations, making connections, asking questions, inferring, determining importance and synthesizing, and monitoring one’s comprehension while engaged with texts (Zimmerman, C. & Hutchins, C., 2003). Reading Comprehension 12 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction Strategy based reading instruction has many components. The literature review provides background information on these major areas. The topics discussed in this section are ones that had a strong presence in the research pertaining to strategy based reading instruction. In order to lay a foundation, a well-balanced reading program will be outlined and cover what it entails. Moving from this section, the term “active reader” will be defined. Many of the resources used in this research noted the importance of students actually being engaged with the text. Research refers to this as higher-level thinking. Students who are using higher level thinking skills are also using specific strategies. Then effective strategies that good readers use when comprehending texts are identified. This section will demonstrate that teaching those strategies to students, and scaffolding them through the process, results in stronger reading comprehension. Following the explanation of the strategies, a special collections piece, and an administrative record will be highlighted. Both pertain to strategy based reading instruction at a specific elementary school. The final section in the literature review addresses standardized testing and the history of reading instruction in the United States. Standardized testing is a reality, and sometimes a primary focus, in many schools across our country. Students who receive strategy based reading instruction in the classroom, are able to carry over those strategies on standardized tests, and produce strong reading comprehension testing results. Reading Comprehension 15 skills may do this by giving their students worksheets on a specific skill. The worksheet might focus on the main idea, predictions, or facts/opinions from a story. The reason that this is considered lower-level thinking is because the skill activities are likely to require less cognitive effort than when students are trying to apply comprehension strategies to actual reading (Taylor et al., 2003). When students are engaged in higher-level thinking while reading, they are making connections to their prior knowledge, monitoring their comprehension level, asking questions, inferring, etc (Taylor et al., 2003). A teacher who uses higher-level thinking skills may do this by reading a passage aloud to her class, and then asking students to visualize what she read. Students would then draw in full color what they visualized. Higher-level thinking incorporates the seven strategies supported by many literacy advocates, including Stephanie Harvey. Reading Strategies In the 1980s a major breakthrough occurred: researchers identified the specific thinking strategies used by proficient readers (Zimmerman, C. & Hutchins, C., 2003). The study determined that reading is an interactive process in which good readers engage in a constant internal dialogue with the text. It is the inner conversation that one has with oneself that helps one understand and be able to elaborate on what was read (Zimmerman, C. & Hutchins, C., 2003). Stephanie Harvey and Anne Goudvis share Zimmerman and Hutchins’ beliefs that there are seven key strategies to reading comprehension. Zimmerman and Hutchins’ seven strategies, as described below, are: Reading Comprehension 16 making connections, asking questions, making inferences, determining importance, synthesizing information, and visualizing while reading (2003). Strategy One: Connecting The first strategy that a good reader uses is being able to make connections between what the reader knows and the texts the reader is reading. Readers are able to activate their background knowledge by connecting new information to what they already know. Good readers use their relevant prior knowledge before, during, and after reading to enhance their understanding of what they’re reading (Zimmerman, C. & Hutchins, C., 2003). Harvey points out that when students have had an experience similar to that of a character in a story, they are more likely to understand the character’s motives, thoughts, and feelings. In addition, when readers have a general understanding of different genres of text, they comprehend more completely (Harvey, S. & Goudvis, A., 2007). There are three types of connections that readers have when they are engaged with texts (Zimmerman, C. & Hutchins, C., 2003). The first type of connection is text-to- text. This means that the reader is able to connect big ideas and themes across different texts. When a student is engaged with one book, they might be able to connect to another book they have read that has a similar theme, character, plot, etc. The second type of connection is text-to-self. This is when a reader is able to link the text to his or her own personal life. Text-to-self occurs when what you read reminds you of something from your own life. These types of connections are particularly important because brain research shows that “emotions drive attention, create meaning, and have their own memory pathways” (Eric Jensen, Teaching with the Brain in Mind, p. 72). Making an emotional connection helps us remember what we read. (Zimmerman, C. & Hutchins, C., 2003, p. 51) Reading Comprehension 17 The third type of connection is text-to-world. This is when what you read reminds you of something in the world. Strategy Two: Questioning The second strategy that good readers use is asking questions of themselves, the author, and the text while they are reading. According to Harvey (2007) schools have focused for too many years on the answers to questions, rather than promoting and fostering students’ own questions. Questions are the heart of teaching and learning because it is how human beings make sense of their world. This is why it is important to teach students to generate questions before, during, and after reading in order to construct meaning from what students are reading (Harvey, S. & Goudvis, A., 2007). Strategy Three: Inferring The third strategy that a good reader uses is being able to make inferences during, and after he or she reads. Inferring is reading between the lines, and for many students, it is a difficult strategy to master. Inferring involves drawing a conclusion or making an interpretation that is not explicitly stated in the text. Students infer when they take what they already know, their background knowledge, and merge it with clues in the text to draw a conclusion, surface a theme, predict an outcome, arrive at a big idea, and so forth. If readers don’t infer, they will not grasp the deeper essence of texts they read. (Harvey, S. & Goudvis, A., 2007, p. 18) Strategy Four: Determining importance The fourth strategy that a good reader uses is being able to determine importance. Good readers are able to identify key ideas or themes as they read and they can distinguish between important and unimportant information (Zimmerman, C. & Hutchins, C., 2003). Harvey and Goudvis point out that determining what is important in a text may Reading Comprehension 20 faculty to educate others on what was presented. Teachers who did not attend have the ability to check out books purchased from the workshop in order to learn more about the topic and ways to expand their own teaching. The literacy library at San Domenico School is one form of collaboration at the school. It is a location where teachers are able to exchange knowledge and research on strategy based reading instruction. Collaboration on strategy based reading instruction happens on a daily basis whether it is formal or informal. Teachers are engaged with one another. By being part of a community that is focusing on strategy based reading instruction, teachers incorporate it into their daily teaching practices and have a positive association with it. This positive outlook on strategy based reading instruction is in return passed on to the students in the classroom who receive its instruction. Administrative Record The fall of 2007 was a significant period at San Domenico because all three divisions of the school (primary, middle and upper) came together to become unified in terms implementing literacy in the classrooms at all three levels. This led to the development of a shared language and philosophy. These foundations focused on Stephanie Harvey’s strategy based reading instruction. The minutes from a literacy meeting in November of 2007 focused on short-term and long-term goals for the school in regards to reading. Short-term goals from the meeting asked teachers in all three levels to observe one another to see firsthand how the seven reading strategies could be implemented in the classroom. Long-term goals were made to further train teachers on strategy based reading instruction. In addition, the Reading Comprehension 21 literacy committee realized the importance of getting parents on board with this vision, and created a parent book club that would read 7 Keys to Comprehension, by Susan Zimmerman and Chryse Hutchins. Minutes from this literacy meeting demonstrate how teachers across divisions and grade levels believe in this mode of instruction. San Domenico School not only wants to educate teachers on how to successfully implement strategy based reading instruction, but also to educate parents. In order to provide a successful education to the child, there needs to be a partnership between the school and families. Testing Scores Some schools use scripted reading programs which do not always provide a range of texts to meet the needs of each student in the classroom. These programs are used because schools want to improve their testing scores (Ede, 2006). In a classroom of twenty students there are 20 different types of readers. When the same book is put into the hands of every student in a class, a portion of the class may find the book too easy, a portion will find it just right and the rest will find it too hard. A study by Buly and Valencia (2002) examined the profiles of students who failed state reading assessments. The study found that the United States of America is looking for ways to improve students reading scores, but the programs that many school districts have in place do not meet the needs of struggling readers. The only certain conclusion was that students who had failed the test had not correctly answered comprehension questions. Many school districts are mandating “scripted curriculum” especially for new teachers (Goodnough, 2001). One response to scripted curriculum that Goodnough received was: Reading Comprehension 22 “The beauty of these types of programs,” as one mentor teacher put it, “is that you don’t have to think about it. Everything is spelled out for you… ” (p. 233). Not all teachers have a positive response to scripted curriculum, as it frequently gives only one resource for a whole class, regardless of their ability. Buly and Valencia argue that just because specific grade level teachers are teaching their grade level standards, doesn’t mean they are providing appropriate instruction for all students. In looking at strategy based reading instruction, there is a correlation between teachers who use this method and how their students perform on standardized tests. Trabasso and Bouchard (2002). Trabasso and Bouchard discuss how it is beneficial to teach multiple strategies to students. With direct instruction, readers will know when and how to use specific strategies. By modeling the strategies and allowing for student practice, students will internalize how to use them. Trabasso and Bouchard conclude: There is very strong empirical, scientific evidence that the instruction of more than one strategy in a natural context leads to the acquisition and use of reading comprehension strategies and transfers to standardized comprehension tests. Multiple strategy instruction facilitates comprehension as evidenced by performance on tasks that involve memory, summarizing, and identification of main ideas. (p. 184) One can infer from this that strategy based reading instruction is an effective way to teach reading which will also benefit standardized tests. National and State Reading Test Scores Each school across the United States has at least one item on its agenda in common: standardized testing. Students of all ages are tested in many areas, one of which is in reading. Since 2001, the importance of standardized testing has increased due Reading Comprehension 25 comprehension) students are given the tools to improve their reading comprehension (Zimmerman, C. & Hutchins, C., 2003). Students who have been taught reading strategies are able to carry these skills over when completing standardized tests. Students who have been explicitly taught these strategies are able to perform strongly on the reading comprehension portion of standardized tests. The literature review also focused on San Domenico School that recently adopted strategy based reading instruction at all grade levels, kindergarten through twelfth. The school has modeled a partnership between the teachers in different divisions by instilling a literacy library. The literacy library is a common source teachers can refer to for expertise. In addition to the literacy library, there has been an all school literacy committee created which meets monthly. It has been developed to ensure strategy based reading instruction continues to evolve. The research covered in the literature review provides significant support for using strategy based reading instruction in a classroom; however, there is a lack of research that focuses on teacher’s perceptions of it. Limited research was available which highlighted teachers’ thoughts on its effectiveness for improving reading comprehension. The purpose of this study is to gather a sense of teachers’ perceptions of strategy based reading instruction in regards to reading comprehension. Reading Comprehension 26 CHAPTER 3 INTERVIEW WITH AN EXPERT Sample and Site For this study, I decided to interview Mary Altshuler, the Literacy Coordinator at San Domenico School. Ms. Altshuler, has had extensive experience implementing strategy based reading instruction, and training new teachers on how to incorporate strategy based reading instruction in their classrooms. She is also constantly educating herself in this arena of reading instruction. Ethical Standards This study conforms to all ethical standards of research as determined by the American Psychological Association. This project was reviewed by the Dominican University of California Institutional Review Board and assigned IRB Approval Number 7092. Summary Mary Altshuler is the Literacy Coordinator for PreK-5th grade at San Domenico School, as well as a third grade teacher and member of the school’s literacy committee which incorporates grades PreK-12th. Ms. Altshuler has been teaching for most of her life and has always had a passion for literacy. She continues to educate herself and evolve as an educator. “Strategy based reading instruction is just one component of a balanced reading program” (Altshuler, 2009). She believes that in addition to using this form of Reading Comprehension 27 instruction, it is important to also incorporate phonics, word work, guided reading, and independent reading in one’s reading program. This is true especially at younger grade levels where students are still developing their reading skills. There are many benefits to using strategy based reading instruction. For teachers, it is useful because the teacher can use the same strategy with a wide range of readers in one classroom. Interestingly, these strategies were developed after researching the brains of proficient readers to see how they best make sense out of text (Altshuler, 2009). From the brain-based studies, it was concluded that all proficient readers unconsciously use the seven strategies identified in this method. By implementing these strategies students are able to connect to texts deeply and engage in higher-level thinking. When introducing the strategies to students it is important to focus on one strategy at a time, rather than working with all of them at once. This way, students are able to have a strong understanding of each one before being introduced to the next strategy. According to Ms. Altshuler, strategies should be introduced in a sequential order, starting with creating mental images, and moving (in the following order) to using background knowledge, asking questions, making inferences, determining importance, synthesizing information, and finally introducing using fix-up strategies (Altshuler, 2009). She also noted that, “different strategies seem to be easier for different readers” (Altshuler, 2009). In her experience, there does not seem to be one strategy over another that is easier to implement. Reading Comprehension 30 yes or no. The sixth seventh and eighth questions were deemed irrelevant to this study by the researcher. Data Analysis and Approach Responses to the online survey yielded quantitative and qualitative results. Question one produced qualitative results that gathered background information on each participant. Questions two thru five produced quantitative results that allowed the researcher to analyze the answers by calculating the mean for each response. Question two asked the participants to rate how effective they felt strategy based reading instruction is in regards to helping students improve their reading comprehension. 77.8% of participants answered that it was very effective, and 22.2% of participants answered that it was effective. Question three asked participants how well they were able to differentiate instruction to an entire class using strategy based reading instruction. Responses indicated that 55.6% of participants felt they could differentiate all of the time; 33.3% of the participants felt they could differentiate most of the time; 11.1% of the participants felt they could differentiate some of the time. No participant felt they could never differentiate. Of the 55.6% of participants who feel they can always differentiate instruction, those participants currently teach 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 5th grades. The participants in 1st thru 3rd grade have ability based reading groups where the span of readers is not as great; however, the 5th grade participant has a wide span of readers in her class. Of the 33.3% who responded they could differentiate most of the time, those participants Reading Comprehension 31 currently teach 1st, 6th/7th and 8th grade reading. The 1st grade reading group is ability based, but 6th through 8th has a wide span of readers. One participant felt that she could only differentiate some of the time, and she is a kindergarten teacher. With 88.9% of the participants agreeing that they are able to differentiate at least most of the time, strategy based reading instruction is clearly an effective way to reach the majority of readers in one class. Question four measured how frequently students seem to be engaged when strategy based reading instruction is being used. The results were tabulated as follows; 66.7% of respondents answered students seem to be engaged all of the time, 33.3% of respondents answered that students seem to be engaged most of the time. The responses from this question produced favorable results showing that most, if not all of the time, students are engaged with picture or chapter books. As indicated earlier in this study, a teacher’s attitude plays a role in what gets translated to teaching practices. Question five of the survey asked participants if they enjoy teaching reading when implementing strategy based reading instruction. All participants indicated that they enjoy it. Because all of the participants enjoy using this method of reading instruction, one can assume that those participants are putting much effort into their teaching practices because it is something they find enjoyable. Summary of Major Findings The purpose of this study was to measure teacher’s perceptions of strategy based reading instruction in relation to reading comprehension. In general, the results suggest that the participants have a favorable perception of this mode of reading instruction. Reading Comprehension 32 Teachers’ perceptions are often translated to their students during instruction. When teachers are interested and excited about a topic, it is often carried over in their teaching practice (Harvey, S. & Goudvis, A., 2007). In return, students often have a higher likelihood of being engaged in the topic. This notion is supported in this study. All participants enjoy teaching when implementing strategy based reading instruction. The students who receive this instruction are engaged with each lesson; 66.7% of the participants responded that their students are engaged all of the time, and 33.3% of the students are engaged most of the time. It is crucial that a teacher is able to differentiate when teaching, as there are many types of learners in one classroom. When teachers are able to differentiate, they are able to effectively reach their students. From this study, one can conclude that the majority of teachers are able to differentiate while using strategy based reading instruction. 88.9% of the participants agreed that they could differentiate most, if not all, of the time. The participants in this study all agree that strategy based reading instruction is an effective way to improve reading comprehension. Results indicated that 77.8% of the participants believe that is very effective, and 22.2% believe that is effective. Because all of the participants believe it is either effective or very effective, one can conclude that the participants’ perception of strategy based reading instruction is an indeed favorable way to improve reading comprehension. Reading Comprehension 35 reading instruction, and they feel that it is an effective way to improve reading comprehension. There are several ways in which one could extend this research. First, a similar study could occur, but with a larger population for the sample. A researcher could use participants from more than one private school, and ensure there are more than one or two participants from each grade level. One could also survey private schools in different areas of the country to see if demographics play a role in teachers’ perceptions to strategy based reading instruction. Another way the research could be extended would be to do a similar study in a public school north of San Francisco. If a researcher were able to find a public school in close proximity, its student body may have a similar student body to those in the private school used in this study. Implications for future research could also examine how a school’s administration perceives strategy based reading instruction in regards to comprehension. An administrator may have slightly different objective in regards to its effectiveness to reading comprehension. Some schools may focus on testing score results due to the No Child Left Behind Act (Guilfoyle, 2006). In addition, gathering information how parents and students perceive this form of reading instruction would be informative. Unveiling how effective both of those parties view strategy based reading would be useful especially when considering adopting this method. Do students find it as an enjoyable way to engage with texts? Do parents feel as though their child’s reading comprehension improves by using these strategies? I was unable to find research that focuses on the parents and students’ point of view, so this could be a new avenue to pursue. Reading Comprehension 36 Overall Significance of This Study There are two outcomes that are significant in this study. The purpose of this study was to measure teachers’ perceptions of strategy based reading instruction in relation to reading comprehension. All of the participants surveyed have positive feelings towards strategy based reading instruction. They all enjoy using it as a teaching method. This correlates to the second major finding: all of the teachers find strategy based reading instruction an effective way to improve reading comprehension. In fact, the majority of the participants find it to be very effective. Reading Comprehension 37 CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION Strategy based reading instruction is an effective way to improve reading comprehension. In order to truly understand how this form of instruction can improve reading comprehension, it is necessary to understand what exactly it means to read. There are two parts to reading: external and internal. The external portion is the actual decoding of words. Often, adults believe students understand what they are reading because they are reading the words aloud correctly; however, this is not always the case. Students do not understand what they are reading even though they are reading the words aloud. This is where the second part of reading factors in. It is the second part, internal reading, which ties into reading comprehension. The internal part of reading is the actual comprehension of it. It is the voice inside your head that is engaged with what you are reading. When you are engaged with a text, you are actively reading it. This is one of the outcomes of using strategy based reading instruction. In order for students to become actively engaged with texts, students must be taught how to do so. Teachers must explicitly model and explain the reading strategies that good readers use when comprehending texts. After teachers have given their students explicit and formal instruction, students must be given the opportunities to practice using these strategies over and over again. Slowly, teachers will pull away until readers are able to use the strategies on their own. These strategies are using higher-level thinking skills because it is truly requiring readers to think deeply about the text. Strategy based reading instruction can be used with all levels of readers and in mixed ability based classrooms. The same strategy can be used with a first grader and an eighth grader. The results from the survey given to teachers at a private elementary Reading Comprehension 40 REFERENCES Adams, M., et al. (2000). 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