The Impact of Physical Education and Physical Activity on Academic Performance: A Review, Summaries of Physical Education and Motor Learning

Download The Impact of Physical Education and Physical Activity on Academic Performance: A Review and more Summaries Physical Education and Motor Learning in PDF only on Docsity! The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Division of Adolescent and School Health www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth Revised Version — July 2010 (Replaces April 2010 Early Release) - - Acknowledgments: This publication was developed for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) Division of Adolescent and School Health (DASH) under contract #200 2002-00800 with ETR Associates. Suggested Citation: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The association between school based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2010. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY When children and adolescents participate in the recommended level of physical activity—at least 60 minutes daily—multiple health benefits accrue. Most youth, however, do not engage in recommended levels of physical activity. Schools provide a unique venue for youth to meet the activity recommendations, as they serve nearly 56 million youth. At the same time, schools face increasing challenges in allocating time for physical education and physical activity during the school day. There is a growing body of research focused on the association between school-based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance among school-aged youth. To better understand these connections, this review includes studies from a range of physical activity contexts, including school-based physical education, recess, classroom-based physical activity (outside of physical education and recess), and extracurricular physical activity. The purpose of this report is to synthesize the scientific literature that has examined the association between school-based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance, including indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behaviors, and academic achievement. Methods For this review, relevant research articles and reports were identified through a search of nine electronic databases, using both physical activity and academic- related search terms. The search yielded a total of 406 articles that were examined to determine their match with the inclusion criteria. Forty-three articles (reporting a total of 50 unique studies) met the inclusion criteria and were read, abstracted, and coded for this synthesis. Coded data from the articles were used to categorize and organize studies first by their physical activity context (i.e., physical education, recess, classroom-based physical activity, and extracurricular physical activities), and then by type of academic performance outcome. Academic performance outcomes were grouped into three categories: 1) academic achievement (e.g., grades, test scores); 2) academic behavior (e.g., on- task behavior, attendance); and 3) cognitive skills and attitudes (e.g., attention/concentration, memory, mood). Findings of the 43 articles that explored the relationship between indicators of physical activity and academic performance were then summarized. Results Across all 50 studies (reported in 43 articles), there were a total of 251 associations between physical activity and academic performance, representing measures of academic achievement, academic behavior, and cognitive skills and attitudes. Measures of cognitive skills and attitudes were used most frequently (112 of the 251 associations tested). Of all the associations examined, slightly more than half (50.5%) were positive, 48% were not significant, and only 1.5% were negative. Examination of the findings by each physical activity context provided insights regarding specific relationships. 1) School-Based Physical Education Studies School-based physical education as a context category encompassed 14 studies (reported in 14 articles) that examined physical education courses or physical activity conducted in physical education class. Typically, these studies examined the impact of increasing the amount of time students spent in physical education class or manipulating the activities during physical education class. Overall, increased time in physical education appears to have a positive relationship or no relationship with academic achievement. Increased time in physical education does not appear to have a negative relationship with academic achievement. Eleven of the 14 studies found one or more positive associations between school-based physical education and indicators of academic performance; the remaining three studies found no significant associations. 2) Recess Studies Eight recess studies (reported in six articles) explored the relationship between academic performance and recess during the school day in elementary schools. Six studies tested an intervention to examine how recess impacts indicators of academic performance; The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 5 the other two studies explored the relationships between recess and school adjustment or classroom behavior. Time spent in recess appears to have a positive relationship with, or no relationship with, children’s attention, concentration, and/or on-task classroom behavior. All eight studies found one or more positive associations between recess and indicators of cognitive skills, attitudes, and academic behavior; none of the studies found negative associations. 3) Classroom Physical Activity Studies Nine studies (reported in nine articles) explored physical activity that occurred in classrooms apart from physical education classes and recess. In general, these studies explored short physical activity breaks (5–20 minutes) or ways to introduce physical activity into learning activities that were either designed to promote learning through physical activity or provide students with a pure physical activity break. These studies examined how the introduction of brief physical activities in a classroom setting affected cognitive skills (aptitude, attention, memory) and attitudes (mood); academic behaviors (on-task behavior, concentration); and academic achievement (standardized test scores, reading literacy scores, or math fluency scores). Eight of the nine studies found positive associations between classroom-based physical activity and indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behavior, and academic achievement; none of the studies found negative associations. 4) Extracurricular Physical Activity Studies Nineteen studies (reported in 14 articles) focused specifically on the relationship between academic performance and activities organized through school that occur outside of the regular school day. These activities included participation in school sports (interscholastic sports and other team or individual sports) as well as other after-school physical activity programs. All 19 studies examining the relationships between participation in extracurricular physical activities and academic performance found one or more positive associations. Strengths and Limitations This review has a number of strengths. It involved a systematic process for locating, reviewing, and coding the studies. Studies were obtained using an extensive array of search terms and international databases and were reviewed by multiple trained coders. The studies cover a broad array of contexts in which youth participate in school-based physical activities and span a period of 23 years. Furthermore, a majority (64%) of studies included in the review were intervention studies, and a majority (76%) were longitudinal. The breadth of the review, however, is a limitation. All studies meeting the established review criteria were included and treated equally, regardless of the study characteristics (e.g., design, sample size). The studies were not ranked, weighted, or grouped according to their strengths and limitations. The breadth of the review, while revealing a variety of study designs, measures, and populations, often made comparisons and summaries difficult. As a result, conclusions are intentionally broad. Implications for Policy There are a number of policy implications stemming from this review: • There is substantial evidence that physical activity can help improve academic achievement, including grades and standardized test scores. • The articles in this review suggest that physical activity can have an impact on cognitive skills and attitudes and academic behavior, all of which are important components of improved academic performance. These include enhanced concentration and attention as well as improved classroom behavior. • Increasing or maintaining time dedicated to physical education may help, and does not appear to adversely impact, academic performance. 6 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance Implications for Schools The results of this review support several strategies that schools can use to help students meet national physical activity recommendations without detracting from academic performance: • School-based physical education: To maximize the potential benefits of student participation in physical education class, schools and physical education teachers can consider increasing the amount of time students spend in physical education or adding components to increase the quality of physical education class. Articles in the review examined increased physical education time (achieved by increasing the number of days physical education was provided each week or lengthening class time) and/or improved quality of physical education (achieved through strategies such as using trained instructors and increasing the amount of active time during physical education class). • Recess: School boards, superintendents, principals, and teachers can feel confident that providing recess to students on a regular basis may benefit academic behaviors, while also facilitating social development and contributing to overall physical activity and its associated health benefits. There was no evidence that time spent in recess had a negative association with cognitive skills, attitudes, or academic behavior. • Classroom-based physical activity: Classroom teachers can incorporate movement activities and physical activity breaks into the classroom setting that may improve student performance and the classroom environment. Most interventions reviewed here used short breaks (5–20 minutes) that required little or no teacher preparation, special equipment, or resources. • Extracurricular physical activities: The evidence suggests that superintendents, principals, and athletic directors can develop or continue school-based sports programs without concern that these activities have a detrimental impact on students’ academic performance. School administrators and teachers also can encourage after-school organizations, clubs, student groups, and parent groups to incorporate physical activities into their programs and events. The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 7 METHODS Conceptual Definitions The research on this topic suggests that physical activity can be related to many different aspects of academic performance (e.g., attention, on-task behavior, grade- point average [GPA]), and as a result, the existing literature examines a wide range of variables. In this report, those variables are organized into three categories: 1) cognitive skills and attitudes, 2) academic behaviors, and 3) academic achievement. The three categories, as well as other important terms used in this report, are defined below. Academic Performance: In this review, academic performance is used broadly to describe different factors that may influence student success in school. These factors are grouped into three primary areas: 1) Cognitive Skills and Attitudes Cognitive skills and attitudes include both basic cognitive abilities, such as executive functioning, attention, memory, verbal comprehension, and information processing, as well as attitudes and beliefs that influence academic performance, such as motivation, self-concept, satisfaction, and school connectedness. Studies used a range of measures to define and describe these constructs. 2) Academic Behaviors Academic behaviors include a range of behaviors that may have an impact on students’ academic performance. Common indicators include on-task behavior, organization, planning, attendance, scheduling, and impulse control. Studies used a range of measures to define and describe these constructs. 3) Academic Achievement Academic achievement includes standardized test scores in subject areas such as reading, math, and language arts; GPAs; classroom test scores; and other formal assessments. Physical Education: Physical education, as defined by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE), is a curricular area offered in K–12 schools that provides students with instruction on physical activity, health-related fitness, physical competence, and cognitive understanding about physical activity, thereby enabling students to adopt healthy and physically active lifestyles.35 A high-quality physical education program enables students to develop motor skills, understand movement concepts, participate in regular physical activity, maintain healthy fitness levels, develop responsible personal and social behavior, and value physical activity.35 Recess: Recess is a time during the school day that provides children with the opportunity for active, unstructured or structured, free play. Physical Activity: Physical activity is defined as any bodily movement produced by the contraction of skeletal muscle that increases energy expenditure above a resting level.1 Physical activity can be repetitive, structured, and planned movement (e.g., a fitness class or recreational activity such as hiking); leisurely (e.g., gardening); sports- focused (e.g., basketball, volleyball); work-related (e.g., lifting and moving boxes); or transportation-related (e.g., walking to school). The studies in this review included a range of ways to capture the frequency, intensity, duration, and type of students’ physical activity. Physiology: In this report, physiology includes indicators of structural or functional changes in the brain and body. Studies most often reported measures of physical fitness, motor skills, and body composition from this construct. Inclusion Criteria The following criteria were used to identify published studies for inclusion in this review. Studies had to • Be published in English. • Present original data. 10 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance • Be published between 1985 and October 2008.* • Focus on school-aged children aged 5–18 years. • Include clear measures of physical education and/or physical activity, such as – Physical education class. – Recess. – Classroom-based physical activity (outside of physical education and recess). – Extracurricular physical activities (including school sports and other teams). • Measure academic performance (cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behaviors, and academic achievement) using one or more educational or behavioral outcomes. Examples include – Graduation or dropout rates (n=2). – Performance on standardized tests (n=17). – Academic grades/GPA (n=9). – Years of school completed (n=1). – Time on task (n=3). – Concentration or attentiveness in educational settings (n=7). – Attendance (n=3). – Disciplinary problems (n=6). – School connectedness † (n=2). Studies were excluded if they did not meet the above criteria or if they focused solely on sedentary lifestyle variables, overweight status, or media use rather than physical activity. Studies also were excluded if they focused exclusively on the relationship between academic performance and fitness test scores rather than physical activity itself. Review articles, meta-analyses, and unpublished studies were excluded from the coding and analysis portion of this review, although their reference lists were used to identify original research to be reviewed for inclusion. * Articles published between October 2008 and the publication date that met the inclusion criteria and made a notable contribution to the field may have been included in the review based on expert recommendations. † School connectedness refers to students’ belief that adults and peers in the school care about their learning as well as about them as individuals.36 Identification of Studies that Met the Inclusion Criteria Studies were identified through a search of nine electronic databases (ERIC, Expanded Academic Index ASAP, Google Scholar, PsycNET®, PubMed, ScienceDirect®, Sociological Abstracts, SportDiscus™), and the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL®) using a pre-established set of search terms that included both physical activity and academic- related terms (see Appendix A). Additional studies also were located from reference lists of the identified articles. Classification of Studies The search yielded 406 articles (see Figure 1). Two trained researchers examined each article to determine its match with the inclusion criteria; it was then classified as “included for review” or “excluded from review.” When the match was unclear, articles were temporarily classified as “possible inclusion” before being reviewed by two additional researchers for final classification. Initially, 50 articles were identified for inclusion. Four of those articles were later excluded because they lacked clarity necessary to categorize them appropriately for the review. For example, one article examining movement lacked sufficient information to determine whether the movement should be classified as physical activity; another article lacked a clear academic performance variable. The other two articles lacked clarity in descriptions of analyses and testing of research questions that was necessary for categorization. A fifth article was excluded because of its focus on elite athletes rather than a general student population. Two additional articles that examined associations between participation in a sports- based interdisciplinary curriculum and academic grades were excluded because of insufficient detail about the physical activity participation levels of students and the subsequent lack of fit into the review categories. A total of 363 articles were excluded. Reasons for exclusion were failure to include an appropriate measure of physical activity (n=103), academic achievement (n=40), or both physical activity and academic achievement (n=25); classification as a review or meta- analysis (n=82); inclusion of participants outside the The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 11 F IGURE 1: 108 Included for Review 87 Excluded from Review 260 Excluded from Review 21 Included for Review 43 Total Articles Included for Review 85 of these articles were later classified as excluded These 38 articles were reviewed by 5 team members and then classified as Classified as 38 Possible Inclusion 22 Included for Review 16 Excluded from Review 406 Total Articles Article Classification System age range of interest (n=58); inability to obtain full text of the study (n=49); and a publication date outside the inclusion range (n=6). Overall, 43 articles (describing 50 unique studies) met the inclusion criteria and were read, abstracted, and coded for this synthesis. Two articles in this review presented findings from more than one study that met inclusion criteria; one article described three studies,37 and the other reported six.2 Study Coding Process The coding method for this report is similar to that of several prominent literature reviews in the public health field.38-40 A team of eight trained reviewers read and coded the 43 articles using a standard coding protocol (see Appendix B). When multiple studies were presented in a single article, this information was noted in the coding, but the studies remained grouped by article. The coding protocol involved abstracting information from the studies and entering it into a Microsoft Access® database. Whenever possible, information was abstracted directly from articles as stated by authors. The following information was abstracted: purpose, research questions, study design, sampling, sample characteristics, setting, theory, intervention, methods, analytic strategy, results, limitations, study focus, and additional comments. For this review, study designs were classified as experimental, quasi-experimental, descriptive, or case studies (study designs are defined in Appendix C); data collection methods and time points were noted as described. Studies that lacked details regarding any field of interest were coded as “information not provided.” To ensure consistency in coding, approximately 17% of all articles were double-coded by a reviewer and a senior coder. A team of article reviewers met regularly during the coding process to discuss and resolve issues associated with coding. A system was established for handling coding questions and concerns. Senior team members resolved and verified issues as they arose. A brief summary profile of each study was then created (see Appendices D–G). A list of the studies 12 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance For ease of review, the results are presented here by physical activity context. Within each context, results are described by study focus (intervention or nonintervention) and by the type of results. Each results subsection also includes a summary table that shows the number of associations (total, positive, negative, and no association) for all the studies reviewed in that context area. Results with p values less than 0.05 are considered statistically significant in this report. Qualitative and descriptive studies that did not include significance testing are described in the text of this report, but not in the outcome counts. Associations are displayed by type of academic performance outcome measured: cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behavior, or academic achievement. Table 1: Summary Characteristics of Reviewed Studies Number of Studies that Included Academic Achievement Measure* Characteristics of Studies Number of Studies (N=50) Academic Achievement Academic Behavior Cognitive Skills and Attitudes Physical Activity Context Physical education class 14 10 3 7 Recess 8 0 3 5 Classroom based 9 6 1 5 Extracurricular physical activity 19 16 9 14 Study Design Experimental 11 8 3 6 Quasi-experimental 17 6 4 12 Descriptive 22 17 11 11 Data Collection Design Cross-sectional 12 8 3 5 Longitudinal 38 27 15 26 Intervention Intervention 32 20 12 23 Nonintervention 18 15 6 8 Setting† School day 40 26 12 22 After school 6 5 2 5 Community 3 3 3 3 Household 2 2 1 2 Student Sample Educational Level Primary 22 12 6 11 Secondary 27 23 11 19 Cross level 1 0 1 1 Country United States 34 23 16 21 International 16 12 2 10 * Studies often included more than one type of measure; thus, the number of studies that include these different academic performance measures may exceed the total number of studies in any given category. † Some studies included more than one setting; therefore, the total number of studies by setting exceeds 50. The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 15 49.5% School-Based Physical Education Studies Fourteen studies (reported in 14 articles) examined the relationship between school-based physical education and academic performance (see Figure 2, and Tables 2a and 2b). Most (n=10) described intervention studies and assessed the impact of an intervention on a range of outcomes. The remaining four were descriptive and examined the relationships between physical education and academic measures. Appendix D includes summary profiles for each of the articles reviewed in this section. FIGURE 2: Type of Association Observed for Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors, and Academic Achievement Outcomes Across All Physical Education Class Studies (n=79 associations within 14 studies) Positive Association (n=39) No Association (n=39) Negative Association (n=1) Intervention Studies. In general, the intervention studies (three implemented in the United States and seven in other countries) examined how differences in physical education affected academic performance. Six studies41-46 examined increasing the amount of physical education or the level of physical activity intensity in physical education class and comparing students’ academic performance by intervention condition (e.g., physical education two times per week versus daily physical education, or physical education for 20 minutes versus physical education for 30 or 40 minutes, or the intensity of physical activity during physical education). School-Based Physical Education Studies: Highlights • • Eleven of 14 studies found one or more positive associations between physical education and indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behavior, and/or academic achievement. • • Overall, increased time in physical education appears to have a positive relationship or no relationship with academic achievement. • • Increased time in physical education does not appear to have a negative relationship with academic achievement. Two studies examined strategies for improving the quality of physical education: one focused on implementation by trained instructors of a curriculum that promotes greater amounts of moderate and vigorous physical activity in students, and the other implemented multiple strategies such as focusing on students’ personal goal setting, emphasizing opportunities for active participation by all students, and maximizing active use of class time.47,48 The remaining two studies examined the relationship between increasing the emphasis on different types of activities (i.e., aerobic exercise, coordinative exercise) and aspects of academic performance.49,50 Collectively, the studies were conducted across a broad range of grade levels, representing elementary, middle, and high schools. Seven studies employed an experimental design, and three reported data from quasi-experimental designs. Most studies involved short- term follow-up (e.g., immediate or 3-month delay). Sallis and colleagues48 and Ericsson43 both followed youth for approximately 3 years. Finally, the studies assessed a range of indicators of academic performance, including cognitive skills (e.g., concentration and creativity), attitudes 16 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance (e.g., self-esteem and motivation), academic behaviors (e.g., conduct), and/or academic achievement (e.g., standardized test scores and GPA). Results varied across the 10 intervention studies, with most (8 of 10) showing one or more positive associations. Two studies showed all or mostly positive associations between physical education and cognitive skills and attitudes or academic achievement. Specifically, Ericsson43 found that extending physical education (from 2 days per week to daily) was associated positively with academic achievement (math, reading, and writing test scores). That study also noted positive associations for attention, an indicator of cognitive functioning, although the relationships dissipated over time. Budde and colleagues49 found that coordination exercises (i.e., exercises that require the body to balance, react, adjust, and/or differentiate) were more beneficial than normal sport lessons in boosting cognitive functioning (specifically, concentration and attention). Six studies reported more mixed conclusions. Five found a mixture of positive and nonsignificant associations.41,42,44,47,50 For example, Dwyer and colleagues42 compared academic achievement and classroom behavior across three intervention conditions Table 2a: School-Based Physical Education Intervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors, and Academic Achievement Variables in Physical Education Intervention Studies (N=10 Studies)* Total # of Performance Outcomes Across the 10 Intervention Studies Type of Relationship Observed Between Physical Education Class and Academic Performance Positive None Negative Cognitive Skills and Attitudes (N=7 Studies) 24 12 12 0 Attention/concentration 5 3 2 0 Self-esteem 1 1 0 0 Creativity 1 1 0 0 Perception of academic or intellectual competence/self-concept 8 3 5 0 Perceptual motor ability 1 0 1 0 Planning ability 1 0 1 0 Perceived self-concept 2 1 1 0 Impulse control 3 2 1 0 Life satisfaction 1 1 0 0 Attitude towards school 1 0 1 0 Academic Behavior (N=3 Studies) 7 2 5 0 Conduct 7 2 5 0 Academic Achievement (N=6 Studies) 21 11 9 1 Achievement test scores (e.g., math, reading, language arts) 19 10 8 1 Grades/grade point average 2 1 1 0 Total 52 25 26 1 * Studies may have measured the relationship between physical education class and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between physical education class and standardized test scores, attendance, motivation, and perceived academic potential). Individual studies in this section measured between 1 and 8 different outcomes and may be represented in multiple cells of the table. The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 17 Intervention Studies. The six intervention studies (all implemented in the United States) examined the relationship between recess, or increased physical activity during recess, and cognitive skills (attention or concentration) and academic behavior (on-task behavior). All of these studies were conducted in elementary schools with students in kindergarten through fourth grade, and all six employed an experimental or quasi-experimental design.37,55-57 Most used trained observers to collect data on classroom and recess behaviors, with multiple observation points. The data collection follow-up period ranged from 0 to 4 months following baseline. The interventions involved the introduction of recess into the daily school schedule or manipulating the timing of recess (e.g., holding recess after varying lengths of class time). Results across these six studies showed positive outcomes or no association. Three studies reported all positive associations between more physical activity at recess and classroom behaviors.55-57 Specifically, Caterino and Polak55 found that fourth-grade students who participated in directed physical activity during recess (stretching and aerobic walking) had significantly higher concentration scores than those students who sat quietly in the library during recess. Both studies that measured academic behavior found a positive relationship between recess and on-task behavior. Jarrett and colleagues56 observed that children were less fidgety, less listless, more focused, and more on task when they had recess compared with when they did not have recess. Pellegrini and Davis57 found that students who engaged in physical activity (as opposed to sedentary behavior) during recess fidgeted less in the classroom after recess. The three intervention studies by Pellegrini and colleagues37 reported both positive and nonsignificant associations. These studies examined the relationships between the timing of recess (i.e., recess after 2.5 hours versus 3 hours of classroom time) and students’ behaviors during recess and students’ classroom behaviors before and after recess. Investigators found that students’ attention rates were lower after longer periods of classroom work without a break than after shorter periods. They also found that, in general, students’ attention was better after recess than before. Finally, they found that the type of behavior during recess did not affect classroom attention after recess for any grade or gender groups. Nonintervention Studies. One of the two nonintervention recess studies58 explored the impact of the frequency of recess on teacher reports of classroom behavior in a very large sample (n=11,529); the other59 explored the impact of recess on observations of individual students’ cognitive and emotional adjustment to school within one school (n=77). Barros, Silver, and Stein58 found that overall classroom behavior (based on Table 3a: Recess Intervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes and Academic Behaviors Variables in Recess Intervention Studies (N=6 Studies)* Total # of Performance Outcomes Across the 6 Intervention Studies Type of Relationship Observed Between Recess and Academic Performance Positive None Negative Cognitive Skills and Attitudes (N=4 Studies) 10 4 6 0 Attention/concentration 10 4 6 0 Academic Behavior (N=2 Studies) 4 4 0 0 On-task behavior (not fidgeting) 4 4 0 0 Total 14 8 6 0 * Studies may have measured the relationship between recess and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between recess and attention and behavior). Individual studies in this section measured between 1 and 9 different outcomes and may be represented in multiple cells of the table. 20 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance Table 3b: Recess Nonintervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes and Academic Behaviors Variables in Recess Nonintervention Studies (N=2 Studies)* Total # of Performance Outcomes Across the 2 Nonintervention Studies Type of Relationship Observed Between Recess and Academic Performance Positive None Negative Cognitive Skills and Attitudes (N=1 Study) 2 1 1 0 Perceptions of school adjustment 2 1 1 0 Academic Behavior (N=1 Study) 1 1 0 0 On-task behavior (not fidgeting) 1 1 0 0 Total 3 2 1 0 * Studies may have measured the relationship between recess and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between recess and perceptions of school adjustment and on-task behavior). Individual studies in this section measured between 1 and 2 different outcomes and may be represented in multiple cells of the table. teacher ratings) was significantly better for students who had recess every day for at least 15 minutes than for those who did not. Exploration of the impact of recess on individual students showed a positive association with end-of-year social competence and perceptions of school adjustment for boys, but not for girls.59 Strengths and Limitations of Methods.These studies feature several strengths as well as a few notable limitations. Six of the eight studies used experimental or quasi-experimental designs, and most involved observations of student behaviors with multiple observation points (e.g., 6, 12, or 32 observations). The studies focused on elementary-level students, primarily because recess is most common at the elementary grade levels. Study authors reported a number of limitations including small sample sizes (range of 23–77 students in seven of the eight studies), and the inability in most of the studies to analyze data by SES, race/ethnicity, or other subgroups. In addition, the authors noted that classroom- level ratings of student behavior by the classroom teacher could be influenced by the teachers’ perceptions of the benefits of recess. Classroom Physical Activity Studies Nine studies (reported in nine articles) examined the relationship between classroom-based physical activity and academic performance (four implemented in the United States and five in other countries) (see Figure 4 and Table 4). All nine of the studies were interventions. Appendix F includes summary profiles for each of the articles reviewed in this section. These studies examined how the introduction of brief physical activities in a classroom setting affected cognitive skills (e.g., aptitude, attention, memory); attitudes (e.g., mood); academic behaviors (e.g., on-task behavior, concentration); and academic achievement (e.g., standardized test scores, reading literacy scores, math fluency scores). The interventions involved the introduction of physical activities by trained teachers or facilitators into the classroom setting, with activities lasting 5–20 minutes per session. Physical activity sessions or breaks typically were delivered on a daily or regular basis. Intervention implementation periods spanned from 1 day to 16 months, with most lasting 2–3 months. All but two of these studies were conducted with elementary school students in first through fifth grades; the others were conducted in a primary and secondary school in Sweden60 and an urban middle school in the United States.61 Five studies employed quasi- experimental designs,60-64 three used experimental designs,32,65-67 and one used a qualitative case-study design.68 The data collection follow-up period ranged from 0 to 12 months after the intervention. Outcome measures most often included standardized aptitude The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 21 49.5% and achievement tests and teacher or trained observer ratings of classroom behavior. FIGURE 4: Type of Association Observed for Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors, and Academic Achievement Outcomes Across All Classroom Physical Activity Studies (n=20 associations within 9 quantitative studies) Positive Association (n=8) No Association (n=12) Classroom Physical Activity Studies: Highlights • • Eight of the nine studies found positive associations between classroom- based physical activity and indicators of academic performance. • • One study examined gender effects and found no differences in outcomes by gender. Results across the nine intervention studies showed positive outcomes or no association. Four studies reported all positive associations between classroom physical activity and classroom behaviors and academic achievement.60-63 Specifically, Della Valle and colleagues61 found using movement with seventh-grade learners who had an active learning style enhanced their performance on a word recognition task. Maeda and Randall62 reported that second-grade students exhibited greater concentration and demonstrated higher math fluency after engaging in brief movement breaks consisting of 5 minutes of vigorous exercise 1 hour after lunch. Similarly, Mahar et al.63 observed greater frequency of verbal and motor behavior that followed class rules and was appropriate to the learning situation for third- and fourth-grade students whose teachers led them in daily 10-minute regimens of physical activities (e.g., jumping, rolling, hopping, twisting) during academic instruction. This relationship was especially strong among students who were least on task at baseline. Furthermore, Norlander and colleagues60 found that teachers observed higher student concentration levels after daily stretching exercises. Four intervention studies reported positive and nonsignificant associations.64,66-68 Fredericks et al.66 described improvements in spatial aptitude, reading skills, and math skills among first-grade students exposed to daily classroom exercises focused on the development of perceptual and sensory motor skills. However, there were no associations with other indicators of aptitude, such as perception, reasoning, memory, and verbal comprehension or emotional indicators. In their feasibility study, Lowden et al.68 qualitatively described that students and teachers perceived that student exposure to The Class Moves!® program was positively related to improvements in on-task classroom behaviors and concentration. Teachers, however, did not feel they could relate the program to academic or cognitive achievement. Molloy64 observed that students exposed to 5 minutes, but not 10 minutes, of aerobic exercise improved their arithmetic performance. Exposure to aerobic exercise was unrelated to observed on-task behavior (attention) for all but a small sample of hyperactive students. Uhrich and Swalm67 found that daily sessions to develop motor skills (bimanual coordination) through a sport cup- stacking exercise were associated with improvements in reading comprehension but not reading decoding scores. These improvements were comparable for boys and girls. The ninth intervention study found no relationship between an additional 15 minutes of daily classroom- based physical activity (skipping, dancing, and resistance exercises) in the context of a school- wide physical activity program and standardized achievement tests.65 The classroom intervention lasted 22 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance The studies that explored the relationship between school records of academic achievement and student participation in interscholastic sports found mostly positive and neutral results. For example, one study74 of eighth-grade students found that participation in interscholastic sports was associated with higher math grades, higher math standardized test scores, and higher overall GPAs; however, another study72 of 12th-grade students found no relationship between varsity sports participation and grades. Two studies75,77 examined the impact of sports on high school dropout rates and found that participants were significantly less likely to drop out of school compared with nonparticipants. Two studies75,76 found that the relationship between academic achievement and varsity sports participation was inconsistent, showing positive, negative, and no association, depending on the outcome measured and the grade level of the students. Fredricks and Eccles76 found participation in seventh-grade school sports was associated with a decreased school value in eighth and 11th grades but was associated with increased resiliency in 11th grade. Yin and Moore75 found that students who reported participation in interscholastic sports in eighth grade showed significantly lower test scores for that year compared with students who did not participate. However, as these same students moved through high school, those differences disappeared, showing no differences in test scores between sport participants and nonparticipants in the 10th or 12th grades. Hawkins and Mulkey’s71 exploration of the relationship between interscholastic sports participation and teacher ratings of students’ academic ability showed no relationship between participation and academic ability; however, other measures of academic behavior and cognitive skills and attitudes showed positive relationships or no relationship, varying by gender. As an example, male athletes were more likely to plan to attend college than nonathletes, and both male and female athletes showed greater interest in class than nonathletes. Three of the four studies that examined the relationship between student report of participation in sports teams and self-report of grades showed positive relationships. Fredricks and Eccles70 also found a positive relationship between sports participation and students’ educational expectations and school completion rates. Seven of the nine studies examined gender effects69-72,74,75,76 on academic performance; five of the seven studies found at least one significant difference by gender; however, overall, 68% of the associations by gender showed no relationship. One study76 also examined results by race and SES. No other subgroup or demographic analyses were reported in the other studies. Other School-Related Extracurricular Physical Activity Ten studies focused on extracurricular physical activities organized through the school but conducted outside the regular school day (e.g., after school). Seven studies examined the effects of an intervention,2,34 and the other three were descriptive,79,80,78 with sample sizes ranging from 35 to 4,264. Measures of academic performance included grades, math scores, homework completion, and attendance. Intervention Studies. One intervention article2 focused on physical activity opportunities after school using six different studies. This article, which focused on studies conducted in the United States, assessed the impact of a life skills program with an emphasis on improving physical fitness on students’ self-reported grades, school attendance, and self-concept. The program was taught after school in a sample of middle schools, high schools, and community centers. As part of the program, students completed an individual exercise program as well as instruction about related topics such as self-assessment, goal setting, fitness, and exercise planning. Program impact was evaluated at six sites immediately after the program. Results showed positive associations between program participation and academic performance (grades and attendance) or no significant relationships. The positive findings (for self- concept, school attendance, and self-reported grades) were concentrated in the community site, which had the largest sample size. Across all sites (middle schools, high schools, and community centers), self-concept improved significantly for program participants. The other intervention study was conducted in the United Kingdom and examined participation in a school- organized, year-long exercise program completed at home and its relationship with cognitive skills and math The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 25 Table 5a: Extracurricular Physical Activity Intervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behavior, and Academic Achievement Variables in Extracurricular Physical Activity Intervention Studies (N=7 Studies)* Total # of Performance Outcomes Across the 7 Intervention Studies Type of Relationship Observed Between Extracurricular Physical Activity and Academic Performance Positive None Negative Cognitive Skills and Attitudes (N=7 Studies) 17 12 5 0 Self-esteem/self-concept 6 6 0 0 Verbal/literacy ability 8 3 5 0 Working memory 1 1 0 0 Motor ability (coordination) 2 2 0 0 Academic Behavior (N=6 Studies) 6 1 5 0 Attendance 6 1 5 0 Academic Achievement (N=6 Studies) 6 1 5 0 Grade point average 6 1 5 0 Total 29 14 15 0 * Studies may have measured the relationship between extracurricular physical activity and academic and cognitive performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between extracurricular physical activity and grade point average, self-concept, and attendance). Individual studies in this section measured between 3 and 11 different academic measures. Consequently, the number of studies across the three academic performance areas exceeds 2. outcomes of 7- to 10-year-old children diagnosed with, or at risk of, dyslexia or dyspraxia.34 This study used a quasi-experimental design with immediate and long- term (3-year) follow-up. Little detail was provided on how the physical activity intervention was developed or implemented. Children showed improved verbal and cognitive skills following the individualized physical activity intervention, although there were no math improvements.34 Nonintervention Studies. The three nonintervention studies, all conducted with secondary students in the United States, examined associations between participation in after-school physical activity and academic performance using existing data sets (one cross-sectional and two longitudinal). Two studies78,79 explored the association between student reports of participation in extracurricular activities and student self- reported grades, including involvement in a combination of sports and nonsport activities. Those studies found consistently positive associations between extracurricular activity participation and self-reported grades as well as positive academic attitudes and higher academic aspirations. Harrison and Narayan80 examined the impact of participation in after-school activities (including participating 1–2 hours per week or more in school sports) on homework completion and class attendance. The study showed that physical activity participation was positively related to homework completion and class attendance. Strengths and Limitations of Methods. These studies featured a number of strengths. Most had relatively large sample sizes. Most (n=16) of the studies focused on measures of academic achievement, such as standardized test scores or grades (record data or self-reported data). In addition, of the studies that examined sports participation compared with nonparticipation, more than half (n=6) specified the level of competitiveness of team participation; nonetheless, these studies did not compare outcomes by varying levels of sports competitiveness. More than three-fourths of the studies were longitudinal in nature (n=15), allowing for an exploration of causality; the cross-sectional nature of the remaining studies (n=4) 26 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance Cognitive Skills and Attitudes (N=7 Studies) 48 28 18 2 Self-esteem/self-efficacy/self-concept 19 5 4 0 Academic self-concept/competence 3 2 1 0 Locus of control 5 4 1 0 Educational aspirations/potential 4 4 0 0 Interest in class 4 3 1 0 Mood 8 1 7 0 Positive academic attitudes 3 3 0 0 School value 4 0 2 2 School attachment 4 4 0 0 Resiliency 4 2 2 0 Academic Behavior (N=3 Studies) 34 15 19 0 Conduct (discipline) 4 0 4 0 Enrollment in academic track/science class 4 2 2 0 School completion 1 1 0 0 Attendance 6 2 4 0 Prepared for class 4 0 4 0 Homework completion 2 2 0 0 Attend college 4 2 2 0 Dropout rates/graduation 9 6 3 0 Academic Achievement (N=10 Studies) 24 13 10 1 Achievement test scores (e.g., math, reading, language arts) 4 1 2 1 Grade point average/grades 16 11 5 0 Academic ability Total 4 1 3 0 3 106 56 47 limited the ability to establish the temporal relationship between the variables. Relatively few studies examined data by race/ethnicity, and only two explored physical activity interventions. Reports were unclear whether sport participation required a minimal level of academic achievement, a requirement that could bias the samples. Several authors also acknowledged limitations such as the need to include measures of social influence (e.g., parental support) in future research, the need to look more closely at how level of participation or competitiveness in sport might affect academic achievement, and the fact that some of the associations found were relatively weak. Table 5b: Extracurricular Physical Activity Nonintervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behavior, and Academic Achievement Variables in Extracurricular Physical Activity Intervention Studies (N=12 Studies)* Total # of Performance Outcomes Across the 12 Intervention Studies Type of Relationship Observed Between Extracurricular Physical Activity and Academic Performance Positive None Negative * Studies may have measured the relationship between extracurricular physical activity and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the association between participation in sports and test scores, attendance, and perceived academic potential). Individual studies in this section measured between 1 and 32 different academic measures. Consequently, the number of studies across the three academic performance areas exceeds 14. The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 27 Findings by Gender, Other Demographic Characteristics, and Research Design Do the results vary by gender? • Relatively few studies examined differences in associations by gender, and there were no distinct patterns. Of studies that did examine data by gender, a few found differences, but most did not. For example, eight of the studies on school-based physical education examined data by gender. Six found no differences by gender; one found effects favoring boys (higher-level motor skills were associated with greater increases in reading and math scores among boys than girls); and one found effects favoring girls (greater time spent in physical education was related to higher reading and math scores for girls but not for boys). How do the studies and results differ by grade level? • Studies of recess and classroom-based physical activity tended to be from elementary school settings, and studies of extracurricular physical activity tended to be from secondary school settings. • Overall, the pattern of results appeared slightly more positive in the secondary school setting. Of the associations examined among elementary youth only, 43% were positive, 56% were neutral, and 1% were negative. At the secondary level, 55% of the associations examined were positive, 43% were neutral, and 2% were negative. Do the results vary by race/ethnicity? • Very few studies examined the relationships between physical activity and academic performance by race or ethnicity, so it is difficult to make conclusions at this time. Of the seven studies that explored race/ ethnicity, most focused on how race/ethnicity affected participation in physical activity rather than on how it influenced the association between physical activity and academic achievement. One study examining classroom-based physical activity breaks by race found no differences in academic performance between Asian and Caucasian students.65 A study of an 8-week movement intervention found that language spoken (Afrikaans, English, and Other), used as a proxy indicator for race/ethnicity, may have explained some differences in children’s spatial aptitude.66 Do the results vary by research design? • Not much variation in results by research design was noted. Although many factors influence a study’s quality, experimental or quasi-experimental research designs are generally regarded as more rigorous. The pattern of associations in studies with either of these types of design had very similar results. In the 29 studies using experimental or quasi-experimental designs, 50% (55 of 109) of associations were positive, and 49% (53 of 109) were not significant. Less than 1% (1 of 109) of the associations were negative. Strengths and Limitations of Review What are the strengths of this review? • This review has a number of strengths. It covers 23 years of research; it involved a systematic process for locating, reviewing, and coding the studies; articles were obtained using an extensive array of search terms and international databases; articles were reviewed by multiple trained coders; and the articles cover a broad array of contexts in which youth participate in school- based physical activities. Furthermore, a majority (64%) of studies included in the review were intervention studies, and a majority (76%) were longitudinal. What are the limitations of this review? • This review summarizes all studies that met the established review criteria, regardless of the study characteristics. The studies were not ranked, weighted, or grouped according to their strengths and limitations; as a result, findings from studies with more rigorous research designs and larger sample sizes were given no more influence than findings from studies with weaker designs and smaller sample sizes. Instead, 30 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance results were based on counts of statistical findings, and this, in essence, had the effect of allowing individual studies containing multiple comparisons to have a greater influence on the findings as a whole. The number of statistical findings in any given study ranged from 1 to 32; given those differences, it becomes clear that a single study with 32 comparisons would have influenced the overall results more than a study that included only 1 comparison. In addition, the breadth of the review, while revealing a variety of study designs, measures, and populations, often made comparisons and summaries difficult. For example, similar constructs were often defined and/or measured differently across studies. Even something as seemingly consistent as standardized test scores can vary from state to state. Therefore, these inconsistencies limit the ability of this or any review to draw specific conclusions across all studies. For the same reason, it was not appropriate to make broad statements about effect sizes. Although the studies in this review include examples of moderate and large effect sizes,47,51,63 there were not enough studies analyzing the same variables in any given category to make summary statements about the magnitude of associations between physical activity and academic performance variables. As a result, conclusions do not summarize magnitudes of effect sizes and are intentionally broad. Implications for Future Research or Evaluation What other research or evaluation needs to be done to further the field in this area? • Within the contexts reviewed, there were relatively few studies of the impact of recess and classroom physical activity on academic achievement. None of the reviewed studies examined the relationship of sports and academic achievement within the primary grades or the relationship of physically active breaks/recess and academic achievement within the secondary grades. Few studies conducted subgroup analyses beyond gender comparisons. • Less than half of the studies described effect sizes or magnitudes of the associations observed. Reporting of effect sizes can guide researchers and practitioners towards interventions most likely to impact outcomes of interest. • Although nearly all of the reviewed studies described a practical framework for the research, few of the studies articulated a theoretical basis for the work or explicitly described how the findings informed theory development. Theoretical specificity may enable researchers to more easily identify relevant bodies of work from other disciplines, consider new relationships and mechanisms of action, align and strengthen intervention design and measurement, and ultimately progress the field more effectively and efficiently. • Improved understanding of the specific cognitive and behavioral impacts of particular physical activities could inform intervention developers and improve the match between interventions, populations, and educational goals. For example, compared with measures of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behaviors such as on-task classroom behavior or following instructions were less likely to be examined as proximal outcomes of physical activity or potential mediators of academic achievement. • Future research should further examine the relationship between school-based physical activity and academic performance in subpopulations of students (e.g., based on gender, race/ethnicity, or SES). Results from this type of research could help physical education teachers and physical activity coordinators apply findings of programs and interventions to meet the needs of particular groups of students. • Future research should be developed in consultation with educators (e.g., school administrators and staff) and informed by research across disciplines, such as neurobiology, cognitive science, social psychology, and kinesiology. For instance, few studies placed the work within a neurobiology model to better understand the role of brain physiology, within an ecological framework to account for contextual variables, or within a developmental perspective to examine developmental differences in relationships between physical activity and academic achievement. The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 31 • Future research and evaluation would benefit from identifying uniform ways to measure key outcomes, including both physical activity and academic performance outcomes. Similarly, future studies would benefit from larger sample sizes and stronger research designs that include longitudinal follow-up, as appropriate. Adequate follow-up of interventions has been more limited in physical education compared with other contexts. Implications for Schools What are the policy and practice implications from this review? • Schools should continue to offer or increase opportunities for physical activity. There is evidence that physical activity may help improve academic performance (including grades and standardized test scores) in some situations. Increasing or maintaining time dedicated to physical education does not adversely impact academic performance. • The studies in this review also suggest that physical activity can impact cognitive skills and attitudes, important components of improved academic performance. This includes enhanced concentration and attention as well as improved classroom behavior. • Taking all of the evidence into account, schools should strive to meet the National Association for Sport and Physical Education’s recommendation of daily physical education and offer students a balanced academic program that includes opportunities for a variety of daily physical activities. What are the current recommendations for students’ physical activity? • Recent recommendations indicate that 6- to 17-year­ olds should be participating in at least 60 minutes of physical activity daily,83 and schools can and should provide opportunities for physical activity to help students meet this recommendation. In fact, the Institute of Medicine’s Preventing Childhood Obesity: Health in the Balance report recommended that schools provide a significant portion of students’ daily physical activity.84 • To enable students to meet these recommended levels of physical activity, the National Association for Sport and Physical Education recommends that all pre-K through grade 12 schools implement a comprehensive school physical activity program, which includes quality physical education; physical activity before, during, and after school, including recess and other physical activity breaks; extracurricular, noncompetitive physical activity clubs; interscholastic sports; and walk- and bike-to-school initiatives.35 How can schools promote physical activity at school? • Physical activity can be included in the school environment in a number of ways without detracting from academic performance. Studies highlight potential benefits of physical activity in physical education classes, during recess, in regular classrooms, and through extracurricular sports and other physical activity opportunities. – School-based physical education: To maximize the potential benefits of student participation in physical education class, schools and physical education teachers can consider increasing the amount of time students spend in physical education class or adding components to increase the quality of physical education class. Studies reviewed here showed that programs were able to increase physical education time by increasing the number of days per week or the length of class time, adding trained physical education instructors, supplementing programs with community resources, and using outside facilities (e.g., swimming pools). 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The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 37 SEARCH TERMS Physical Activity • Reading performance • Mathematics achievement • Physical activity • Mathematics performance • Exercise • Science achievement • Physical education • Science performance • Fitness • Educational indicators • Sport • Achievement scores • Sport participation (searched in Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature • Educational testing [CINAHL®] and SportDiscus™ only) • Educational assessment • Energy expenditure (searched in CINAHL® and • Dropout SportDiscus™ only) • School refusal • Student motivation • Student engagement Academic-Related • Student learning • Academic achievement ®• Information retrieval (searched in CINAHL • Academic problems and SportDiscus™ only) • Educational status (MeSH) • Cognitive performance • Education measurement (MeSH) • Student assessment • Graduation rates • Brain development • Academic grades • School connectedness • Grade point average (GPA) • Standardized test scores • Grade retention Databases For Searching • Years of school completed • PubMed • Time on task • SportDiscus™ • Attentiveness • CINAHL® • Concentration (searched in CINAHL® • Expanded Academic Index ASAP and SportDiscus™ only) • PsycNET® • Attendance • Sociological Abstracts • Tardiness • ERIC • Discipline • ScienceDirect® • Memory • Google Scholar • Reading achievement 40 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance Appendix B: Coding Sheet The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 41 Topic: Title of Article: Date of Article (month/year): Citation: Journal: Authors: Volume/edition/pages: 1. Purpose of study as stated by author 2. Research questions/hypotheses as stated by author 3. Study Design (check all that apply) Study Type Data Type Quasi-experimental Quantitative Experimental Qualitative Case study Cohort Design Follow-up Design Cross-sectional Immediate post Prospective Delayed post Retrospective Describe design: 42 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance 7. Theory and theoretical model as stated by author, if specified (Is there a theoretical base for the study? If so, what theory is described? What are the relational forms in the model?) 8. Describe the intervention conditions as stated by the author. Include a description of the structure (e.g., number of sessions, number of sessions per week, average length of each session, who is implementing and how those individuals are trained), topics covered and implementation: The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 45 46 | The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance 9a. Methods for Independent Variables As Reported by Authors (please use a separate row for each broad concept) Broad Concept or Construct How Is Concept Operational- ized and for What Target Population (i.e., Indicators)? Name of Scale or Index # Items in Scale Item and Summary Measurement Types (e.g., Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio) Data Collection Method (e.g., Paper-Pencil Survey)‡ Informant or Information Source (e.g., Student, Teacher, Trained Data Collector)§ Data Collection Time Points** Reliability Information (Note if from Study Sample or Other) Validity Information (Note if from Study Sample or Other) ‡The Access database will display a drop down box with the following response options: paper-pencil survey, computer assisted survey, fitness test, skill assessment, measurement device (e.g., pedometer, accelerometer, heart rate monitor), diary or journal, observation, interview, focus group, and other. §The Access database will display a drop down box with the following options: student, teacher, parent, school administration, research staff, other adult, peer, and other. **The Access database will display check boxes with the following response options: baseline, 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 6 months, 12 months, 18 months, 24 months, 36 months, and other. 9b. Methods for Dependent Variables As Reported by Authors (please use a separate row for each broad concept) The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance | 47 Broad Concept or Construct How Is Concept Operational- ized and for What Target Population (i.e., Indicators)? Name of Scale or Index # Items in Scale Item and Summary Measurement Types (e.g., Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio) Data Collection Method (e.g., Paper-Pencil Survey)†† Informant or Information Source (e.g., Student, Teacher, Trained Data Collector)‡‡ Data Collection Time Points§§ Reliability Information (Note if from Study Sample or Other) Validity Information (Note if from Study Sample or Other) ††The Access database will display a drop down box with the following response options: paper-pencil survey, computer assisted survey, fitness test, skill assessment, measurement device (e.g., pedometer, accelerometer, heart rate monitor), diary or journal, observation, interview, focus group, and other. ‡‡The Access database will display a drop down box with the following options: student, teacher, parent, school administration, research staff, other adult, peer, and other. §§The Access database will display check boxes with the following response options: baseline, 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 6 months, 12 months, 18 months, 24 months, 36 months, and other. 12. Limitations: What limitations were reported by the authors (as stated by author)? 13. Limitations noted by reviewers, but not reported by authors: 14. What type of activity does the article deal with? (Mark all that apply.)  Physical education class  Regular recess  Lunch recess Classroom-based, but not physical education classes specifically General physical activity (school-based or nonschool-based)  Sports or athletics Other (please specify): 15. Additional Comments: 50 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance Appendix C: Glossary of Research Design Terms Case-study design A case study is an in-depth examination (often over time) of one or a small number of cases believed to represent a broader phenomenon;87 it is usually, but not always, observational.88 In this report, all case studies reported only qualitative data. Cross-sectional study A cross-sectional study is conducted at a single time point (often through a survey), with a sample believed to represent a cross section of the population of interest on relevant variables such as sex, age, education levels, etc. Cross-sectional studies can be used to determine whether two variables are associated but do not allow for the direct examination of the impact of time on such associations, a condition necessary to establish casuality.88,89 Descriptive design Descriptive studies have the purpose of describing activities, events, or behaviors that have occurred in a given situation; their goal is often to create a “profile” of a phenomenon, program, or population as it exists.90 Descriptive and inferential statistics may be used.87 These studies differ from most quasi-experimental and experimental designs in that they do not control environments or expose subjects to different treatments and typically lack a control or comparison group, making it more difficult to account for the influence of extraneous factors.87,88 Experimental design Experimental design is often considered the most rigorous of research designs and is frequently referred to as the gold-standard for establishing causality; in order for a study to be classified as experimental, it must include a control group and use random assignment to intervention and control groups.91 Results may not generalize beyond the sample or conditions of the experiment.87 Intervention An intervention is “a specific activity (or set of related activities) intended to change the knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or practices of individuals and populations to reduce their health risk. An intervention has distinct process and outcome objectives and a protocol outlining the steps for implementation.”92 Longitudinal study A longitudinal study is a study conducted over time of a variable or a group of subjects,87 unlike a cross-sectional study. By collecting data at a minimum of two distinct points in time,90 one advantage of longitudinal studies is that they allow for the direct observation of the impact of time on variable associations, a condition necessary to establish casuality.88 The studies in this review had a wide range of time between the initial and final data collection points; in some, final data were collected immediately following interventions, and in others, final data were collected as many as 4 years after the initial data collection. Quasi-experimental design A quasi-experimental design is similar to an experimental design but lacks the important characteristic of random assignment to intervention and control or comparison groups.93 Though not considered as rigorous as an experimental design, it is often considered the next best thing for establishing causality. The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 51 - - Appendix D: School-Based Physical Education Summary Matrix Articles describing quasi-experimental or experimental designs are highlighted in the table before the matrix for each setting. Not all studies used these designs. School Based Physical Education Studies Using Quasi Experimental or Experimental Design (Authors and Date Only) Bluechardt, M.H., Shephard, R.J. 1995 Budde, H., Voelcker-Rehage, C., Pietraßyk-Kendziorra, S., Ribeiro, P., Tidow, G. 2008 Dwyer, T., Blizzard, L., Dean, K. 1996 Ericsson, I. 2008 McNaughten, D., Gabbard, C. 1993 Milosis, D., Papaioannou, A.G. 2007 Pollatschek, J.L., O’Hagan, F.J. 1989 Raviv, S., Low, M. 1990 Sallis, J.F., McKenzie, T.L., Kolody, B., Lewis, M., Marshall, S., Rosengard, P. 1999 Tremarche, P.V., Robinson, E.M., Graham, L.B. 2007 Tuckman, B.W., Hinkle, J.S. 1986 52 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance Study Citation Study Focus and Setting Sample Characteristics Study Design and Data Collection Intervention Conditions Key Outcomes and Results Dexter T53 Relationships between sport knowledge, sport performance and academic ability: empirical evidence from GCSE Physical Education. Journal of Sports Sciences 1999;17(4): 283-295 Study focus: Physical education class Description: The relationships between sport knowledge, sport performance, and academic ability Setting: School, physical education class, classroom Country: UK Sample 1: Youth N: 517 Age range: NR Mean age: 16.00 Grade: Secondary (at completion of compulsory school) Gender: NR Ethnicity: NR Study design: Descriptive, secondary analysis of data from the 1995 General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) examination in physical education, math, and English Data collection method and time points: Standardized tests (GCSE/English, math, physical education knowledge, sport knowledge) 1 time Skill assessment (badminton, basketball, football, hockey, rounders, netball, average sport performance score as measured by Amateur Athletic Association ESSO 5 Star points system) 1 time No intervention Is academic ability (as measured by GCSE English scores) associated with sport skill performance (assessed by teachers)?b • Football • Badminton • Basketball • Hockey • Netball • Rounders • Athletics + + 0 + + 0 + Is academic ability (as measured by GCSE math scores) associated with sport skill performance (as assessed by teachers)?b • Football • Badminton • Basketball • Hockey • Netball • Rounders • Athletics + + 0 + + + + bAdditional analyses by gender showed similar results. Dollman J, Boshoff K, Dodd G54 The relationship between curriculum time for physical education and literacy and numeracy standards in South Australian primary schools. European Physical Education Review 2006;12(2): 151-163 Study focus: Physical education class Description: The relationship between curriculum time for physical education and literacy and numeracy standards in South Australian primary schools Setting: School Country: Australia Sample 1: School N: 117 Grade: Primary and Secondary (3rd, 5th and 7th grades) Study design: Descriptive Data collection method and time points: Principal paper- pencil survey (curriculum time dedicated to physical education, physical education staff age and physical education training, ethnicity, SES) 1 time Standardized tests (state literacy and numeracy tests—State LaN) 2 times (baseline, 12 months) No intervention Does curriculum time committed to physical education independently predict literacy and numeracy competencies assessed by the State Literacy and Numeracy Test (controlling for socioeconomic status (SES), nonEnglish-speaking background, and staff profile variables)? • Literacy • Numeracy • Average school attainment in both literacy and numeracy 0 0 0 The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance | 55 Study Citation Study Focus and Setting Sample Characteristics Study Design and Data Collection Intervention Conditions Key Outcomes and Results Dwyer T, Blizzard L, Dean K42 Physical activity and performance in children. Nutrition Reviews 1996;54(4 Pt 2):S27-S31 Study focus: Physical education class Description: Physical activity and academic performance Setting: School, classroom Country: Australia This article also reported on the Australian School Health and Fitness Study (ASHFS); those data are not presented here because they did not meet inclusion criteria. Sample 1: School N: 7 Grade: Primary (5th grade) Sample 2: Youth N: 501 Age range: NR Mean age: 10 Grade: Primary (5th grade) Gender: NR Ethnicity: NR Study design: Experimental Data collection method and time points: Observation (classroom behavior) 2 times (baseline, 1 week post intervention) Measurement device (height and weight, skinfold test, endurance fitness test) 2 times (baseline, 1 week post intervention) Standardized tests (the Australian Council for Educational Research arithmetic test and the GAP reading test) 2 times (baseline, 1 week post intervention) Name: School Health, Academic Performance and Exercise (SHAPE) study Structure: Students were divided into three groups (skill, fitness, and control) that focused on developing student skill and competence level in minor games. The intervention took place over 14 weeks and was overseen by the investigators to ensure adherence. Implementation: In the skill group, the exercise (duration and frequency) was increased to 75 minutes daily, 15 minutes of which were in the morning. The fitness group had the same. Does participation in a fitness program improve performance on arithmetic and reading tests? • Academic performance 0 Does participation in a fitness program improve classroom behavior (as observed by teacher)? • Classroom behavior + Does participation in a fitness program improve measures of Physical Work Capacity and BMI? • Physical work capacity (fitness) • Skinfold sum scores + + Ericsson I43 Motor skills, attention and academic achievements: an intervention study in school years 1-3. British Educational Research Journal 2008;34(3): 301-313 Study focus: Physical education class Description: Motor skills and attention and academic achievement Setting: School, physical education class Country: Sweden Sample 1: Youth N: 251 Age range: 7–9 Mean age: NR Grade: Primary (1st–3rd grades) Gender: M: 55% F: 45% Ethnicity: NR Study design: Quasi-experimental Data collection method and time points: Skill assessment using the Motorisk Utveckling som Grund för Inlärning (MUGI) checklist (observation of 16 gross motor tasks measuring balance/ bilateral coordination and hand- eye coordination) in 2nd and 3rd grades 3 times, data collection timepoints varied by cohort (baseline, year 2, year 3) Paper-pencil survey using Conners´ questionnaire (teachers’ and parents’ conception of children’s attention ability and impulse control) Conditions: Intervention: Students received physical education lessons 5 days per week. Comparison: Standard physical education lessons 2 days per week. Methods: Intervention: 3 regular school physical education lessons per week plus different local sports clubs gave physical activity lessons for 2 more lessons every week, for a total of 5 lessons of motor skills training and physical activity per week. If needed (for students deemed motor deficient), 1 extra lesson of MUGI motor training per week was provided. Do students with good motor skills have better attention than students with deficits in motor skills (as observed by teachers and parents)? • Attention • Impulse control + + Do students in intervention groups have better attention than students in comparison group (as observed by teachers and parents)? • Attention 2nd grade • Impulse control 2nd grade • Attention 3rd grade • Impulse control 3rd grade + + 0 0 Do students in intervention groups have better standardized test scores than students in comparison group? 56 | The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance Study Citation Study Focus and Setting Sample Characteristics Study Design and Data Collection Intervention Conditions Key Outcomes and Results 3 times (baseline, year 2, year 3) Standardized tests (special education teachers document reading development in 1st and 2nd grades) 3 times (baseline, 6 months, 18 months) Standardized tests (national tests in Swedish, math, words, reading) 1 time (Swedish and math: Spring of 2nd grade; words and reading: Spring of 3rd grade) • Swedish reading and writing • Math (spatial ability and number conception)c + + Do children’s observed motor skills improve with extended physical activity and extra motor training in school? • Motor skillsd + cAdditional analyses by gender showed that intervention boys had significantly better math scores than control boys. dAfter 1 year, differences between groups were rather large (0.24), and in year 3, differences were very large (0.37). McNaughten D, Gabbard C44 Physical exertion and immediate mental performance of sixth-grade children. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1993;77(3 Pt 2):1155-1159 Study focus: Physical education class Description: Physical exertion and mathematical performance Setting: School, classroom Country: USA Sample 1: Youth N: 120 Age range: NR Mean age: 11.3 Grade: Secondary (6th grade) Gender: M: 50% F: 50% Ethnicity: NR Study design: Experimental Data collection method and time points: Measurement device (time of day and duration of walking activity) 11 times (baseline, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday of week 2, 3, 4 and Tuesday of week 5) Mathematical test 11 times (baseline, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday of week 2, 3, 4 and Tuesday of week 5) Structure: Two procedures: walking for a specific duration and receiving a timed mathematical computation test. Testing was conducted over a 5- week period. Methods: Subjects walked around the perimeter of a regulation basketball court at a monitored moderate intensity (120 to 145 beats per minute). Walking duration was systematically ordered for the 20, 30, and 40 minutes. Walking occurred early morning (8:30 a.m.), before lunch (11:50 a.m.) or afternoon (2:20 p.m.). A mathematics test was given at the end of the specified duration of activity, and subjects had 90 seconds to complete the task. Does increased duration (20, 30 or 40 minutes) of physical exertion (walking) lead to improved mathematical test scores? • Math test score (20 minutes) • Math test score (30 minutes) • Math test score (40 minutes) 0 + + Does the time of daye and duration of student exposure to physical activity (walking) improve math performance? • Math test score (morning) • Math test score (before lunch) • Math test score (after lunch) 0 + + eAdditional analyses showed that gender did not have a significant effect or interaction with the results. The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance | 57 Study Citation Study Focus and Setting Sample Characteristics Study Design and Data Collection Intervention Conditions Key Outcomes and Results Tremarche PV, Robinson EM, Graham LB51 Physical education and its effect on elementary testing results. Physical Educator 2007;64(2):58-64 Study focus: Physical education class Description: The impact of increased quality physical education time on standardized test scores Setting: School Country: USA Sample 1: Youth N: 311 Age range: 9–11 Mean age: NR Grade: Primary (4th grade) Gender: NR Ethnicity: Indian: 3.3% Asian: .6% Black: 2.6% Hispanic: 1% White: 92.5% Study design: Quasi-experimental Data collection method and time points: Standardized tests (English and language arts and math on the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System—MCAS scores) 1 time Paper-pencil survey (student time in physical education per school year) 1 time No intervention Did students who received more hours of physical education score higher on the MCAS test? • English language arts • Math + 0 Tuckman BW, Hinkle JS50 An experimental study of the physical and psychological effects of aerobic exercise on schoolchildren. Health Psychology 1986;5(3):197­ Study focus: Physical education class Description: Physical and psychological effects of aerobic exercise Setting: School, physical education class Sample 1: Youth N: 154 Age range: 9.30–11.30 Mean age: NR Grade: Cross level (4th–6th grades) Gender: NR Ethnicity: Nonwhite: 27–29% Study design: Experimental Data collection method and time points: Measurement device (time on 50-meter run) 2 times Measurement device (time on 800-meter run) 3 times (baseline, posttest, 5 months after posttest) Measurement device (skinfold Conditions: Students participated in the running program or regular physical education. Structure: Intervention: 3 running sessions per week for 12 weeks. Each session lasted 30 minutes. The sessions were conducted by the research team as part of students’ physical education classes. Control: regular physical education program, which included basketball, Does exposure to the intervention improve children’s physical and psychological outcomes? • Creativity (Alternate Uses test) • Classroom behavior (teacher observation) • Perceived self-concept (self-report) • Perceptual motor ability (Bender- Gestalt test) • Planning ability and visual-motor coordination (Maze Tracing test) + + 0 0 0 Additional analyses of treatment x gender 207 test for body fat, pulse rate) volleyball, and occasional jogging. showed no differences for classroom behavior, Country: USA 2 times Regular physical education took self-concept, Bender-Gestalt test. However, place 3 times per week for 6th-grade treatment boys and treatment girls performed Paper-pencil survey (teacher students and 5 times per week for 4th- better on the maze test than control boys and rating of student behavior as conducive or disruptive to classroom participation) 2 times Skill assessment (perceptual­ motor ability as measured by Bender-Gestalt test) 2 times and 5th-grade students. Methods: The running took place on a 400-meter track and consisted of gradual increments in distance, interval workouts, and relay runs. control girls, respectively. Does exposure to the intervention improve children’s physical outcomes? 60 | The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance Study Citation Study Focus and Setting Sample Characteristics Study Design and Data Collection Intervention Conditions Key Outcomes and Results Skill assessment (planning ability and visual motor coordination as measured by the Maze Tracing Test) 2 times Paper-pencil survey (creativity as measured by the Alternative Uses Test measuring divergent thinking; self-concept as measured by Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale) 2 times • 800-meter run (boys and girls) • 800-meter run (5-month follow-up—boys) • 800-meter run (5-month follow-up—girls) • 50-meter dash • Pulse rate • Skinfold (body fat) (boys) • Skinfold (body fat) (girls) + + 0 0 + + 0 The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance | 61 - Appendix E: Recess Summary Matrix Articles describing quasi-experimental or experimental designs are highlighted in the table before the matrix for each setting. Not all studies used these designs. Recess Studies Using Quasi Experimental or Experimental Design (Authors and Date Only) Caterino, M.C., Polak, E.D. 1999 Jarrett, O.S., Maxwell, D.M., Dickerson, C., Hoge, P., Davies, G., Yetley, A. 1998 Pellegrini, A.D., Davis, P.D. 1993 Pellegrini, A.D., Huberty, P.D., Jones, I. 1995 62 | The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance Study Citation Study Focus and Setting Sample Characteristics Study Design and Data Collection Intervention Conditions Key Outcomes and Results Pellegrini AD, Huberty PD, Jones I37 The effects of recess timing on children’s playground and classroom behaviors. American Educational Research Journal 1995;32(4):845­ 864 Study focus: Recess Description: Recess and its impact on student behavior in the classroom and on the playground Setting: School, recess Country: USA Sample 1: Youth N: 37 Age range: NR Mean age: NR Grade: Primary (2nd, 4th grades) Gender: M: 46% F: 54% Ethnicity: Black: 30.0% White: 70.0% Sample 2: Youth N: 62 Age range: NR Mean age: 7.6 Grade: Primary (K, 2nd, 4th grades) Gender: M: 55.0% F: 45.0% Ethnicity: Black: 30.0% White: Majority % Asian: Small % Sample 3: Youth N: 44 Age range: NR Mean age: 10.1 Grade: Primary (4th grade) Gender: M: 39.0% F: 61.0% Ethnicity: NR Study design: Quasi-experimental Data collection method and time points: Observation (social interaction during recess, inattention before and after recess, physical activity during recess) 32 times (every Monday– Thursday for 2 months) Conditions: Children in 2nd and 4th grades were presented with either a male-preferred or female-preferred task immediately before recess and immediately after recess. Children were expected to sit quietly in their seats while the teacher read a story with either a male or female main character. Structure: 4 days per week recess timing was manipulated: 2 days per week students went to recess at 10:00 a.m. (short deprivation period) and 2 days per week students went to recess at 10:30 a.m. (long deprivation period). Method: Students were observed before recess, during recess, and after recess. Are children more attentive to classroom tasks after recess than before recess (as observed by research staff)? Experiment 1: • More attentive (grades 2 and 4) • More attentive (K) Experiment 2: • More attentive (grade 2) • More attentive (grade 4) Experiment 3: • More attentive (class 1) • More attentive (class 2) + 0 + 0 + 0 Does children’s observed behavior during recess affect post-recess classroom attention (as observed by research staff)? Experiment 1: • Attention Experiment 2: • Attention Experiment 3: • Attention 0 0 0 Does the timing of recess (after 2.5 or 3 hours of classroom time) affect the playground physical activity and social interaction (as observed by research staff)? Experiment 1: • More physical activity • More social interaction (4th-grade students) Experiment 2: • More physical activity (2nd- and 4th-grade students) • More social interaction Experiment 3: • More physical activity (boys) • More social interaction 0 + 0 + + 0 The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance | 65 Study Citation Study Focus and Setting Sample Characteristics Study Design and Data Collection Intervention Conditions Key Outcomes and Results Pellegrini AD, Kato K, Blatchford P, Baines E59 A short-term longitudinal study of children’s playground games across the first year of school: Implications for social competence and adjustment to school. American Study focus: Recess Description: School adjustment, game facilitation, play/games behaviors Setting: School, recess Country: USA Sample 1: Youth N: 77 Age range: NR Mean age: 6.4 Grade: Primary (1st grade) Gender: M: 39.0% F: 61.0% Ethnicity: NR Study design: Descriptive, with longitudinal follow-up Data collection method and time points: Paper-pencil survey (teacher and researcher checklist of student behavior of adjustment to school, facility in sports and games) 2 times (late Fall and early Spring) Observation (student game behaviors and game facility) 12 times (observed for minimum of 3 minutes per No intervention Does a composite measure of students’ “game facility”i predict end-of-year school adjustment (based on research staff and teacher aggregate ratings)? • School adjustment (boys) • School adjustment (girls) + 0 Does a composite measure of game facilityi predict student’s end-of-year social competence (based on research staff and teacher aggregate ratings)? • Social competence (boys) • Social competence (girls) + 0 iGame facility was measured through an Educational month) aggregate measure that included researcher Research Journal 2002;39(4):991­ 1015 Interview (peer nominations, school connectedness) 2 times (early Fall and late Spring) observations of recess behavior, behavior checklists completed by the teacher and researcher, and peer identification of children who were good at sports. 66 | The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance - Appendix F: Classroom Physical Activity Summary Matrix Articles describing quasi-experimental or experimental designs are highlighted in the table before the matrix for each setting. Not all studies used these designs. Classroom Physical Activity Studies Using Quasi Experimental or Experimental Design (Authors and Date only) Ahamed, Y., MacDonald, H., Reed, K., Naylor, P.-J., Liu-Ambrose, T., McKay, H. 2007 Della Valle, J., Dunn, R., Geisert, G., Sinatra, R., Zenhausern, R. 1986 Fredericks, C.R., Kokot, S.J., Krog, S. 2006 Maeda, J.K., Randall, L.M. 2003 Mahar, M.T., Murphy, S.K., Rowe, D.A., Golden, J., Shields, A.T., Raedeke, T.D. 2006 Molloy, G.N. 1989 Norlander, T., Moas, L., Archer T. 2005 Uhrich, T.A., Swalm, R.L. 2007 The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance | 67 Study Citation Study Focus and Setting Sample Characteristics Study Design and Data Collection Intervention Conditions Key Outcomes and Results Sample 3: School personnel N: 24 Sample 4: Parents N: 19 Sample 5: School personnel N: 30 Maeda JK, Randall LM62 Can academic success come from five minutes of physical activity? Brock Education Journal 2003;13(1):14-22 Study focus: Classroom Description: The impact of adding 5 minutes of physical activity to a day for 2nd­ grade students Setting: School, classroom Country: USA Sample 1: Youth N: 19 Age range: NR Mean age: NR Grade: Primary Gender: M: 36.8% F: 63.2% Ethnicity: NR Study design: Quasi-experimental, with single subject behavioral design—multiple treatment reversal design Data collection method and time points: Observation (5 minutes running/walking) 61 times (each day for 61 days) Teacher-made fluency test (1-minute math addition test) 61 times (each day for 61 days) Structure: The weekly routine, approximately 1 hour after lunch, 4 days per week, consisted of restroom/ water, physical activity, water, and then return to the classroom for the math activity. Implementation: The teacher divided the students into 2 groups based on their performance in math related to addition concepts: 1) grade- level group and 2) below-grade level group. 3 versions of addition problems sheets were used. Do 5 minutes of a moderate to vigorous activity increase math fluency and concentration (based on teacher observation)? • Math fluency • Concentration + + Mahar MT, Murphy SK, Rowe DA, Golden J, Shields AT, Raedeke TD63 Effects of a classroom-based program on physical activity and on-task behavior. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 2006;38(12): 2086-2094 Study focus: Classroom Description: A classroom-based physical activity program’s effect on elementary school-aged children’s physical activity levels and on-task behavior during academic instruction Setting: School, classroom Country: USA Sample 1: Youth N: 243 Age range: NR Mean age: NR Grade: Primary (K–4th grade) Gender: NR Ethnicity: NR Study design: Quasi-experimental Data collection method and time points: Structured and timed observation (on-task behavior of 3rd- and 4th-grade students only—defined as verbal or motor behavior that followed class rules and was appropriate to the learning situation) Daily over a 12-week period (pre- and postintervention) Measurement device – pedometers (number of steps taken in all K–4th-grade classes) 5 days in a week (all children in one grade per week) Structure: Students in all K–4th-grade classrooms (3 classes per grade) in one school participated in “Energizers.” These are classroom-based physical activities that last approximately 10 minutes, integrate grade-appropriate learning materials, involve no equipment, and require little teacher preparation. Training: Before the study, classroom teachers attended a 45-minute training session where they were taught how to lead students through Energizers activities. Training included information about the childhood obesity epidemic. Implementation: Teachers were each asked to lead one 10-minute activity per day for 12 weeks. Does participation in Energizers increase on-task behavior in school (based on researcher observation)? • On-task behavior (3rd- and 4th- grade students) + Does participation in Energizers increase physical activity in school (based on pedometer counts)? • Physical activity + 70 | The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance Study Citation Study Focus and Setting Sample Characteristics Study Design and Data Collection Intervention Conditions Key Outcomes and Results Molloy GN64 Chemicals, exercise and hyperactivity: a short report. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education 1989;36(1):57-61 Study focus: Classroom Description: Effect of exercise on problem solving and attention in normal and hyperactive students Setting: School, classroom Country: Australia Sample 1: Youth N: 32 Age range: NR Mean age: NR Grade: Primary Gender: NR Ethnicity: NR Study design: Quasi-experimental Data collection method and time points: Paper-pencil survey (achievement test scores) 1 time (immediately following each exercise condition: no exercise, 5 minutes of exercise, 10 minutes of exercise) Observation (on-task behavior) 1 time (immediately following each exercise condition: no exercise, 5 minutes of exercise, 10 minutes of exercise) Standardized test (hyperactivity) 1 time (before study) Structure: Children engaged in 3 levels of aerobic exercise at a constant cadence: no exercise, 5 minutes, or 10 minutes of exercise. Does student’s participation in 5 minutes of aerobic exercise improve arithmetic problem solving performance? • Arithmetic performance + Does student’s participation in 10 minutes of aerobic exercise improve arithmetic problem solving performance? • Arithmetic performance 0 How does observed attention span change after aerobic exercise? • Attention 0 Norlander T, Moas L, Archer T60 Noise and stress in primary and secondary school children: noise reduction and increased concentration ability through a short but regular exercise and relaxation program. School Effectiveness and School Improvement 2005;16(1):91-99 Study focus: Classroom Description: Relationships between noise, stress, concentration, and exercise Setting: School, classroom Country: Sweden Sample 1: Youth N: 84 Age range: NR Mean age: 11.3 Grade: Cross level (primary and secondary school) Gender: M: 45.5% F: 54.5% Ethnicity: NR Sample 2: School personnel N: 7 Mean age: 42.1 Gender: M: 28.6% F: 71.4% Ethnicity: NR Study design: Quasi-experimental Data collection method and time points: Measurement device (noise levels in the classroom) 2 times (baseline, 1 month) Paper-pencil survey (student satisfaction with exercise and relaxation program, stress levels) 2 times (baseline, 1 month) Paper-pencil survey (teacher perception of student concentration and stress levels) 2 times (baseline, 1 month) Structure: Relaxation/exercise episodes occurred twice daily for 4 weeks, immediately following the morning break and after the lunch break. The program took 5 to 10 minutes and consisted of a combination of stretching exercises and relaxation exercises. Does the intervention affect student ability to concentrate (as reported by teachers)? • Concentration + Does the intervention reduce classroom noise level (as measured by research staff)? • Noise levels + Does the intervention affect student self- reported stress level? • Stress level 0 The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance | 71 Study Citation Study Focus and Setting Sample Characteristics Study Design and Data Collection Intervention Conditions Key Outcomes and Results Uhrich TA, Swalm RL67 A pilot study of a possible effect from a motor task on reading performance. Perceptual and Motor Skills 2007;104(3 Pt 1):1035-1041 Study focus: Classroom Description: Influence of “cup stacking” and reading achievement Setting: School, classroom, physical education Country: USA Sample 1: Youth N: 41 Age range: 10–11 Mean age: NR Grade: Cross level (K-8th grade) Gender: M: 56% F: 44% Ethnicity: Native American: 1% Asian-American: 2% African-American: 20% Latin-American: 3% Euro-American: 74% Study design: Experimental Data collection method and time points: Standardized tests (measuring reading decoding and comprehension skills using Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test 4th Edition, GMRT-4) 2 times (baseline, 6 weeks) Interview (reading instruction fidelity) 1 time (conclusion of intervention) Structure: Five 1-hour lessons modified into 18 20-minute lessons with 3 lessons per week over a period of 6 weeks. Implementation: Each child had 12 cups to use during the intervention time. Controls had snack time while intervention group “stacked” (intervention group had a later snack time). Does student participation in sport stacking improve children’s reading literacy scores on the GMRT-4 standardized test? • Reading decoding scores • Reading comprehension 0 + 72 | The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance Study Citation Study Focus and Setting Sample Characteristics Study Design and Data Collection Intervention Conditions Key Outcomes and Results Sample 3: Youth N: 33 Mean age: 10.9 Grade: Secondary (junior high school) Gender: M: 60% F: 40% Ethnicity: Hispanic: 6% White: 94% Sample 4: Youth N: 22 Age range: NR Mean age: 11.4 Grade: NR (National Guard community site) Gender: M: 50% F: 50% Ethnicity: Black: 68% Hispanic: 32% Sample 5: Youth N: 40 Mean age: 11.9 Grade: NR (National Guard community site) Gender: M: 47.5% F: 52.5% Sample 6: Youth N: 156 Mean age: 11.1 Grade: NR (National Guard community site) Gender: M: 60.8% F: 39.2% Ethnicity: Black: 76.2% Hispanic: 3.8% White: 19.8% What were the effects of the First Choice fitness program on participating youth activity levels?l Site 1 • Activity level Site 2 • Activity level Site 3 • Activity level Site 4 • Activity level Site 5 • Activity level Site 6 • Activity level 0 0 0 0 0 + lIn addition to activity level, other fitness measures included 1-mile run times, sit and reach, sit-ups, push-ups, body fat, and well-being. The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance | 75 Study Citation Study Focus and Setting Sample Characteristics Study Design and Data Collection Intervention Conditions Key Outcomes and Results Crosnoe R69 Academic and health-related trajectories in adolescence: The intersection of gender and athletics. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 2002; 43(3):317-335 Study focus: Extracurricular physical activity Description: The relationship of gender and athletics to academic and health-related trajectories in adolescence. Setting: School Country: USA Sample 1: School N: 9 Grade: Secondary (high school) Sample 2: Youth N: 2,651 Age range: NR Mean age: NR Grade: Secondary (high school) Gender: NR Ethnicity: Ethnic minority: 40% Not specified: 60% Study design: Descriptive, secondary data analysis (see Steinberg et al, 1996) Data collection method and time points: Paper- pencil survey (self­ reported grades, substance use, athletic participation) 6 times [2 questionnaires answered per year over a 3-year period (1987–1990)] Paper-pencil survey (friends’ behavior, demographics) 1 time No intervention Do male and female high school student athletes’ academic trajectories (based on self-reported grades) improve more than male nonathletes? Start of high school: • Male athletes • Female athletes Over 3 years: • Male athletes • Female athletes + + + + Do gender and athlete status affect substance use at the start of high school? • Tobacco, alcohol, or drug use 0 Are gender and athlete status related to the trajectory of substance use? • Tobacco use • Alcohol use (males, female athletes) • Illegal drug use 0 – 0 Darling N, Caldwell LL, Smith R79 Participation in school-based extracurricular activities and adolescent adjustment. Journal of Leisure Research 2005; 37(1):51-76 Study focus: Extracurricular physical activity Description: The relationship between school-related extracurricular activities and academic adjustment Setting: School, after school Country: USA Sample 1: Youth N: 4,264 Grade: Secondary (9th–12th grades) Gender: M: 47.9% F: 52.1% Ethnicity: Asian: 21.3% Black: 4.6% Hispanic: 13.6% White: 60.5% Sample 2 (a subset of sample 1 who participated in longitudinal data collection): Youth N: 2,462 Grade: Secondary (9th–12th grades) Gender: M: 48% F: 52% Ethnicity: Asian: 21.2% Black: 4.4% Hispanic: 13.1% White: 61.3% Study design: Descriptive, secondary analysis of an existing dataset Data collection method and time points: Paper-pencil survey (participation in extracurricular activity and type of activity, friends’ participation in extracurricular activities, attitude towards school, academic aspirations, self-reports on last term grades) 2 times for Sample 1 (baseline, 12 months) 1 time for Sample 2 (12 months) No intervention Is participation in school-based extracurricular activities (sport and nonsport) associated with indicators of adolescent adjustment (after adjustment for demographics)?m • Higher self-reported grades • Higher academic aspirations • Positive academic attitudes + + + mNo significant differences by gender or other demographic characteristics in final analyses. Participants in sports activities had more positive adjustment than nonparticipants in extracurricular activities, but lower positive adjustment than nonsports extracurricular activity participants. Do youth who have friends who participate in extracurricular activities have higher indicators of adolescent adjustment? • Higher self-reported grades • Higher academic aspirations • Positive academic attitudes + + + 76 | The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance Study Citation Study Focus and Setting Sample Characteristics Study Design and Data Collection Intervention Conditions Key Outcomes and Results Darling N78 Participation in extracurricular activities and adolescent adjustment: Cross sectional and longitudinal findings. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 2005; 34(5):493­ 505 Study focus: Extracurricular physical activity Description: The relationship between school-related extracurricular activities and academic adjustment Setting: School, after school Country: USA Sample 1: School N: 6 Grade: Secondary (9th–12th grades) Sample 2 (cross-sectional analyses): Youth N: 3,761 Grade: Secondary (9th–12th grades) Gender: M: 47% F: 53% Ethnicity: Asian: 18.7% Black: 4.5% Hispanic: 13.8% White: 64.0% Sample 3 (longitudinal analyses): Youth N: 3,427 Grade: Secondary (9th–11th grades) Study design: Quasi-experimental (cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses) Data collection method and time points: Paper-pencil survey [self-reported grades, attitude towards school, academic aspirations, demographics, engagement in classes, participation in extracurricular activity at school during current year, time spent in extracurricular activities (e.g., interscholastic and intramural sports, performing groups, leadership groups), and clubs, family relationships, parenting behavior, peer relationship, deviance, life event stress, depressive symptoms, substance use] 3 times (1987–1990) No intervention Is participation in school-based extracurricular activities associated with indicators of adolescent adjustment (after adjustment for demographics) in year 1 of study?n • Higher self-reported grades • Higher academic aspirations • Positive academic attitudes • Less depression + + + 0 nAdditional analyses were conducted and in no case did entering time commitment change the association between participation and outcomes. More time spent on extracurricular activities was associated with higher grades and academic aspirations. Is participation in school-based extracurricular activities associated with indicators of adolescent adjustment (after adjustment for demographics) across mutiple years of study?o • Higher self-reported grades • Higher academic aspirations • Positive academic attitudes • Less depression + + + 0 oAdditional analyses were conducted and more years of participation were associated with higher grades, a more positive attitude toward school, and higher academic aspirations. Is participation in school-based extracurricular activities associated with indicators of adolescent adjustment (after adjustment for demographics) across mutiple years of study? • Less drinking • Less smoking • Less marijuana use • Less other drug use 0 + + + The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance | 77 Study Citation Study Focus and Setting Sample Characteristics Study Design and Data Collection Intervention Conditions Key Outcomes and Results Harrison PA, Narayan G80 Differences in behavior, psychological factors, and environmental factors associated with participation in school sports and other activities in adolescence. Journal of School Health 2003;73(3):113­ 120 Study focus: Extracurricular physical activity Description: Participation in school sports teams, health behavior, psychological factors, environmental factors, and extracurricular activities Setting: School Country: USA Sample 1: Youth N: 50,168 Age range: NR Mean age: NR Grade: Secondary (9th grade) Gender: M: 49.3% F: 50.7% Ethnicity: American Indian: 1% Asian: 5% Black: 3% Hispanic: 2% White: 82% Unknown: 3% Biracial or multiracial: 4% Study design: Descriptive, secondary analysis of data from the 9th-grade Minnesota Student Survey Data collection method and time points: Paper-pencil survey [self-report of substance use, antisocial behavior, sexual activity, participation in school sports teams or other activities (e.g., band, choir, volunteer work, clubs or organizations outside of school, etc.), exercise, fruit/vegetable consumption, milk consumption, self-esteem, emotional distress, healthy weight perception, suicidal behavior, family alcohol/ problems, victim of physical/ sexual abuse, orientation to school, 2-parent family, perceptions of others] 1 time (2001) No intervention Do students who participate in sports only or sports and other activities have significantly higher odds of studying/ doing homework and attending class than students who participate in neither sports nor activities? • Doing homework (sports only)p • Doing homework (sports and activities) • Reduced truancy (sports only) • Reduced truancy (sports and activities) + + + + pWhen the sports-only group was compared to the activities-only group, the activities-only group was significantly more likely to spend time on homework. Do students who participate in sports only or sports and other activities have significantly higher odds for school-related psychological and environmental outcomes than students who participate in neither sports nor activities? • Liking school (sports only)q • Liking school (sports and activities) • Usually feels good about self (sports only) • Usually feels good about self (sports and activities) • Believe teachers care a great deal about them (sports only) • Believe teachers care a great deal about them (sports and activities) + + + + + + qWhen the sports-only group was compared to the activities-only group, the activities-only group was significantly more likely to report liking school. Do students who participate in sports only or sports and other activities have significantly higher odds of meeting guidelines for moderate or vigorous exercise than students who participate in neither sports nor activities? • Exercise guidelines (sports only) • Exercise guidelines (sports and activities) + + 80 | The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance Study Citation Study Focus and Setting Sample Characteristics Study Design and Data Collection Intervention Conditions Key Outcomes and Results Hawkins R, Mulkey LM71 Athletic investment and academic resilience in a national sample of African American females and males in the middle grades. Education and Urban Society 2005;38(1):62-88 Study focus: Extracurricular physical activity Description: Athletic investment and academic resilience Setting: School Country: USA Sample 1: School N: 1,052 Grade: Secondary (8th grade) Sample 2: Youth N: 2,217 Age range: 13–16 Mean age: NR Grade: Secondary (8th grade) Gender: M: 49.8% F: 50.2% Ethnicity: NR Study design: Descriptive, secondary analysis of base year data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS88) Data collection method and time points: Paper-pencil survey (student self-reported level of participation in interscholastic and intramural sports; plans to enroll in high school academic or college preparatory track, graduate high school, or attend college; report of how popular or important they are viewed to be among schoolmates, student report of behavior or academic referrals, self- reported absenteeism, tardiness, class preparedness, school anticipation) 1 time (February to June, 1988) No intervention Does participating in interscholastic sports improve educational plans, peer status, and academic investments? • Academic ability (teacher rating of males) • Academic ability (teacher rating of females) • Enroll in academic track (males) • Enroll in academic track (females) • Graduate from high school (males) • Graduate from high school (females) • Attend college (males) • Attend college (females) • Social misconduct (males) • Social misconduct (females) • Attendance problems (males) • Attendance problems (females) • Academic unpreparedness (males) • Academic unpreparedness (females) • Interest in classes (males) • Interest in classes (females) 0 0 + 0 0 + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + + Does participating in intramural sports improve educational plans, peer status, and academic investments? • Academic ability (teacher rating of males) + Paper-pencil survey • Academic ability (teacher rating of females) 0 (teacher ratings of student • Enroll in academic track (males) + performance/ability) • Enroll in academic track (females) 0 1 time (February to June, • Graduate from high school (males) 0 1988) • Graduate from high school (females) 0 • Attend college (males) + • Attend college (females) 0 • Social misconduct (males) 0 • Social misconduct (females) 0 • Attendance problems (males) 0 • Attendance problems (females) 0 • Academic unpreparedness (males) 0 • Academic unpreparedness (females) 0 • Interest in classes (males) + • Interest in classes (females) 0 The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance | 81 Study Citation Study Focus and Setting Sample Characteristics Study Design and Data Collection Intervention Conditions Key Outcomes and Results McNeal, RB77 Extracurricular activities and high schol dropouts Sociology of Education 1995; 68(1):62-81 Study focus: Extracurricular physical activity Description: Extracurricular activities and school dropout rates Setting: School Country: USA Sample 1: Schools N: 735 Grade: Secondary (9th–12th grades) Sample 2: Youth N: 14,249 Age range: NR Mean age: 15.5 Grade: Secondary (9th–12th grade) Gender: M: 48% F: 52% Ethnicity: Black: 9.4% Hispanic: 9.5% Other: 2.2% White: 78.9% Study design: Descriptive, secondary analysis of data from the High School and Beyond (HSB) dataset Data collection method and time points: Paper-pencil survey and face-to-face interview (self-reported grades; school value; participation in school activities such as clubs, student government, athletic or sports teams at school, and Summer or after-school recreational programs; self- esteem; psychological resiliency; depression; prosocial peers; risky behaviors; race; and gender) 2 times (baseline in 1980 and 2 year follow-up in 1982) No intervention Does participation in athletics decrease high school dropout rates? • Lower dropout rates + Additional subgroup analyses were conducted without significance testing; it appears that participation may further decrease dropout probability for blacks, and higher SES students. Additional analyses showed that when students participate in more than one activity, little is gained; athletic participation is the only one that remains significant. Did participation in other nonsports extracurricular activities decrease dropout rates? • Fine arts • Academic clubs • Vocational clubs 0 0 0 Analyses also controlled for how much time students spent working during the school year. Reynolds D, Nicolson RI34 Follow-up of an exercise-based treatment for children with reading difficulties. Dyslexia 2007;13(2):78-96 Study focus: Extracurricular physical activity Description: Exercise-based treatment for children with reading difficulties Setting: Household Country: United Kingdom Sample 1: School N: 1 Grade: Primary Sample 2: Youth N: 35 Age range: NR Mean age: 9 Grade: Primary (UK junior school) Gender: M: 54.3% F: 45.7% Ethnicity: NR Study design: Quasi-experimental Data collection method and time points: Standardized tests (cognitive and motor skills— dyslexia screening test) 4 times (June 2000, June 2001, June 2002, and June 2003) Standardized tests (school­ administered tests) 3 times (June 2001, June 2002, and June 2003) Structure: Participants were assigned to the intervention or comparison group matched on the basis of age, and dyslexia ‘at-risk’ levels. Structure: Intervention: youth participated in the DDAT (dyslexia, dyspraxia and attention-deficit disorder treatment) exercise-based daily treatment at home for 6 months. Comparison: youth had no additional activity. Did exposure to the exercise program improve youth’s performance in motor and verbal skills over time? • Rapid naming • Bead threading • 1-minute reading • Postural stability • Phonemic segmentation • 2-minute spelling • Backwards digit span • Nonsense passage reading • 1-minute writing • Verbal fluency • Semantic fluency + + 0 + + 0 + 0 0 0 + The intervention group made roughly normal progress per year posttreatment compared with the projected mean pretreatment. 82 | The A ssocia tion B etw een School-B a sed Physical A ctivity, Including Physical Educa tion, and A ca d em ic Perform ance