Shenandoah County's Agri & Architectural History: Industries, Barns, Schools, Study Guides, Projects, Research of Social Psychology of Emotion

Download Shenandoah County's Agri & Architectural History: Industries, Barns, Schools and more Study Guides, Projects, Research Social Psychology of Emotion in PDF only on Docsity! SHENANDOAH COUNTY HISTORIC LANDM_S SURVEY SURVEY REPORT ./ "x Marat S_ Katbian J. Daniel Pezzoni Preservation Con_ltant Preservation Technologies, Inc. Boyce. Virginia Roanoke, Virginia Ju_ 1993 SHENANDOAH COUNTY HISTORIC LANDMARKS SURVEY PHASE I SURVEY REPORT Maral S_ Kalbian Preservation Con_ltant Rt, I P_x 86, Boyce, VA 22620 (703) 837-2081 J. Daniel Pezzoni Preservation Tectmoiogi_, Inc. PO Bo× 7825, Roanoke, VA 24019 (703) 342-7832 wrinen_ J. Daniel Pezzoni aml Judy B. Reynolds with comributions by Maral S. KalNam Sc_ M. Hudlow, Su_an E. Smead, and Marc C. Wagner prepared.for The Virginia D_{mrt_r_gt _ff Hig(_ric Resources 221 Govem_r Street Ricb_orM, VA 23219 (804) 786-3t43 .lu_, 19, 1993 Iio ._.1._.C212 T_e Shenandoah County Historic Lar_marks S_rvey was under.ken during the winter and sprh_g of 1993 to ir_,_gate the arcN_._tm'M and hig_ric res(mrces of She_aa:.k_ Cgunw, Vkgi.rfia, The survey was funded by the County of She.nando_&and the, V_rg_a Departm_at of"Hk_n'i¢ Resources (VDHR) and was carried o_J¢by Mara| S. KalNan_ Preservation ConstRain; J, Daniel Pezzoni, Preservation Teckaolog_es, Inc.; and a team of _b-comractors (hereafter referrod to as "the consuluant"). Tbe survey covered the rural areas of Sh_doah C_nmty outside of i_'orporated communities and outside the bcmr_ries of the George Washingto_ Nafio_ Forest, a s_,ey area of betwe_en 240,(g_ and 250,_ acres. The two man objectives of the ,_rvey were to _rv_ a total of 350 resources, 3 I5 at the reco_r,aissance tevel and thkrty_five at t_ intensive |evet, and to pr_ntace a _wvey reImrt that would provide historic conte×ts for surveyed properties. Additional products were to include _rvey fil_ prepared _dth the I_tcNTatod Preservati(m Software (IPS), r/hotogTapMc negatives and prin_s for alJ Nte.s, United States Geological Survey (USGS) maps indicating the tocatiou of survey sites, and a _ripted slide pro_am on Ne counD"s historic resources. Completed in Ju_y I993, the sttrvey .red,ted in the dooamema6on of 329 sites at the reco_maissance level and tbiriy-eight sites at the intensive t.eve_for a tolal of 367 sites. Festoon of the inte_ive si._eswere rural commomties for which VDHR Pretimina_: Information Forms were. prepared. TI_'.survey a_so re,Red in the mapping (ff all acces_sibtepropewties that .appeared. to be over fifty years i_ age. INs report recowaneml_ that more _urvey be. c°.ond_:t_ in the coan%, m order _o document the maW historic sites that were nN _'eyed during the iNtiat ptutse a_d in order u) define the threshoM of NatkmaI Register eli_'nility for various property t)_es. This report also recommends tt_t six i.nte_iveqevet sites be c.o_sidered for Ksling in the Virginia Landmarks Register (VLR) _ the Natiov,at Register of Historic Places (NR). IH. #,CKN_Q..W.....L...E._ENT_ The Shenandoah C(mnry surv_, was f_ded by Shenandoah County m,,dihe VDHR. Sher,amioal_ County Adminis_ator John D. Cuflip assisted as the co_i-y contact, amt David Edwards admims_ered the survey at the VDI_R. G_idance was provided throt_glmut the course of the ._rvey by the Shenandoah Count, Historical S(n_e_,, with the president of the _n:iety, Mrs, Bruce Hershey, serving as the comact for the society. The society alerted the cofk_lltta_i to i.m_rtant re.._s_ourcesand sugge_ed knowledgeable informants among .its owa rar&s and ouwide. The _ciegy also arranged for _he use of a phone and office space in the old c_mmy courtah(m,_ i_ W(_glsxock. Several _ciety members accompanied the consul.tar_ in the field. Numerot_s prc_perty owr_rs _. their homes and farms m _, ¢on_s_ltant and provided vMuable site _ ,specific ipAbnnati(m. IV. L_T......O..E..M_._U STRA....T...I..O..NS_TABL_ A. She_mdoab. CounV¢, importam highways, railroads_ watercour_, a_d Wwr_ a_d vitk_.ges. B. Shewa_ck_h C_nmty, USGS quackrangtes and. George Washington Naiio_al Forest ta_s. 3 V. !_TRQ_U..C_.r!Q_N..._LE.C.T The Shenandoah Count" Historic Long.ks Survey _as unde_xaken dtmng the winter and spring of 1993 tomv_gate the architectural and hi._mcr_ot_ces of Shenandoah Cou_W. Virginia, The _wey was _nded by She_doah County and the VDHR a_ was cax_e_ out by Marat S, Kaibia_, Preservation Consultam; J, DapAeIPezzoni, Prese_watkm Technologic, I_Co;and a team of sub-conWactors, The focus of the survey was the rural acreage of Shenandoah Cotmty o-t_tside of incorporated commumfies and ou_s.idethe appmxhnately 77£100 acres owned and adminks_ered by lhe GeaargeW_shington National Forest, a survey' area of betwee_ 240,000 and 250,0_X}acres (USDA. Soil Consewafmn Service: 1), "l_e two main objecfive_sof the prqiect were to st_ey a mtoJ of 350 resources. 315 at the reconm_sarice level and thirty-five at _he intensive level, and to produce a survey report, that would provide hi_oric conte_xts for surveyed properties and recommendations as to NR/VLR eligibility. In _ddition to this scope of work and atm_ant preducts (tP$ survey files, negatives and phot(graphs, USGS maps, a _ripted slide program on the county's historic reNmrces, etc.). The survey was mamtged by Maral S. KatNam an architecturaI hi_xorian/preservatiori con._aita_ based in Boyce, Virginia and J. Daniel PezzonJ, an _rchitecmmt kisto_an/ pr_ervation consultant with *he firm _ff Preservati_m Technologies, tnc., b_sed in Roanoke, Virgfinia. Kalbian and Pez_mi conducted the. major._, of the windshield reconnais_ce that preceded the survey and resulted in the mapping of all properties that appeared to be over fifty years in. age, and they ultimately surveyed thirty-eight imensive sites, three more than the thirty-five sites specified in the contract, tndividt_ty, Kalbian ._rved as contac_ for the agencies and individuals involved in the project and gathered site information at the VDHR, and Pezzoni prepared the. tmal report and _ripted slide .program, The project mangers were assi_ed by several _b- contractors. Historian Judy B. Reynolds of Front Rwat, Virgima assi.sted in the research and writing of live re.|igion, education, _ population statistics secti(_ of the sarrvey report historic context, and. she served as the ._rvey factotum. ArchRecttwaI hi_oriax_s"Marc Co Wagner and Susan E_ Smead _ffCharR_teswiRe, Virginia-l_._ed t_e.servation Associates N Virgiraa ggrveyed 166 reconnaissance sites..Architectural historian Scott M. H_Iow of Williamsburg, Virginia surveyed I05 rec(mr_ssa_e sites. Pezzoni surveyed fif_,-eight reconnais,._ance sites. The tofal n_mber of reconnais_nce sites s_arveyed was 329. O_ January' 7, 1993 the con_ultmat initia_ed a win6shieid recormaissar_e of the c_, in order to identify historic resources that. appeared m be over fifty, years in age. Ka}bian, Pe,zzoni, and Reynolds completed this reconnaissance in Febniary. Sttrvey by HudR_w, Kalbian, Pezzom, Smead, and Wagner was conducted between January and May. Tim consultant made severM preset_tations to the cotmty board of s_apervisors and the hk_tor_caisociety, Towards the end ol" the project the deadlin.e _br c_mpletion of the prqiect from May 31 to October i, 1993. The main rea_n for the exteva.'ion was to compensate for delays occasio_xI by IPS, the experimer_| software that was field tested by the Shenandoah CounD" surv_ and other t.993 ,_rveys. Bad. weather in Februa_." avA March and other de_ays experienced by the con_ltant aim eogtributed to the reed for an extension.. The mrvey was completed and files and reports delivered m the VDHR o.r_Jt_y 19. t993. 4 SHENANDOAH a COUNTY x / ? ~, f oo Fishers Hitt . : (lm fem ML, Olive , STRASBURG my the count" is co_is.'idereda part of the Lower Shenandoah Valley un account of its position near the cor_hi.e_ce of the north 'and sog_ _brtcs of the Shenandoah River and the P_omac River, alttmugh b.i._oricaliy the county shared man), demogra#tic a_l culatr'aI charac_ed,_ics w_th Upper Valley counties such at Augu_ and Rockbridge (Mi.tchetl: 1{10). The c(mnOf's elevation varies from arotmd 1,200' m the Valley to w_ea"3,000' i_ the m_)untains on the western edge of the count'. I_ 1991 it was estimated that approximately 60% of"the corm V laz¢darea was forested.. (USDA. Soil Con_'wvation Service: 1_2), The coun_ may be divided into three physiographic sections, each trending semthwest-no_*Jaea_ with the Mig_me.nt of the She_a_do_. Valley. "fin middle section, the Valley itself, accounts f_ roughly half of the coumy's land area. At the w.rrthern end of the c_.mty this central va_ey is at its narrowest_ measuring approximate|y seve_ mites across. The central vMley gradually broadens until it is appr(mmatety ten miles across a, the southern end of the couney. The valley fl(x)r has a well watered, gently u_ulating s_arfaeetmtterlaid by limestone, bedrock that weathers into a rich _)it. The Shenar_oah River clings m the e&stem edge of the central valley and is characterized by numerous meanders. In the Sever_ Ber_&_area between. Woodst_:k and S_asburg these meanders have a rhythmic looping quali_, 'and in the I850s the Woodstock section of the river was des_Nbed as "g_istea[ing] in its doublings and wir_.ings like a silver _'rpent" (Strother, Virginia IIlustrcued: 79L Alolag the river and the wat_ccearses N)wing into it are level fertile lowlands, one (ffthe lfargest and most celebrated being Meems Boltom, ._tuated at the conttuence of the river and Smith (;reek. The abundance (ff rich bottomlar_t and generally level uplands _r_de Ne central valley atlractive to early agricultttr"alis_s. The c_tr_I valley is b_mnd_ c,n the west by a cbam of ridges that ¢_Iminates in the (?real North M(.mmain.along the Virginia-West Virginia Ix_rder. The headwaiters ofmany of the streams that water the central valley sectkm of the cotmty have their _murces in these moumams. Across the cen_ra_valley on the eastern side of the ca)u_ty is armther series of ridges backed by Mas.sa_urten Mountain° Nestled between Massanutten. Mountain and a l.i_te of ridges vannir_g along the Shenandoah River is Fort Vall_" (somc_mes referred to as "the Fort"), a high, narrow valley running app.ro×imatety fifteen miles in length and watered t\v Pas_g.e Creek. The rr_)u_"tainous secfior_ alor_g the east at_d wed sides of the county generally have shale and sandstone substrate,s _3_tweather into lx._rrer so_s than t_ese fou.,_ in the central val.|_. The relative poverty, of the soils and the lack of level grot_r_dmade these areas tess attractive to early settlers. Extractive industries ,_ch as lumber_g and mining played a more imp_rta_t rote here _han in the central valley, although agri.cNture wa_ still practiced. (The maps apImarir_g after the introduction u) this rep_)rt co, tam graphic mtbrmatiem on _e topography of the c_mD,.) The visually appealing chara_,Xerof the count's topogaphy was described as follows i_ the 1860s: "TIN broad meadows cari_ned with velvet gree_ ar_ watered by c_wsia! streams; the rock-crested m4m_tains overl_king the river, and bor_k_ng _he valley (m either side in long perspecXive ranges_ vamshi_g in the distance iea 'haze of de.fica_e,blue; all combine to form a picture of nmrvek}_s ta_auW_ (Strother, Sampler: 390). The ar_a now contained in Shenaudc_h Count" was mc_ in Frederick Cou_t.." when the latter w&._established in 1738 (Kalbi_a_: I8, 25). The area was also included ir_ Lord Fai_-iax's 6 NorCJ3en3Neck gr_m of 8,(L30 .square mJieso A new coun_ w_s formed from the _)uthern po_on of Frederick County .in 1772 and named Dunmore in honor of the C_mmonwe_d_h's new cotor_aI govern_r, John MmTay, Eat _)fL_ranoreo in 1777, _after Lord Dunmore had taken a decided stand against the colonie_ in the conte_ wi_ the mo_er c0untry," Dunmore tel1 from ..k_e with. the inhabitants of the c,xtmy named after him, and in 1778 t_vename of Dunmore C_ was changed to tx)litically neutr_I Shenand_ml_County (Martin, 1836: 445). In 1831, Page County w_ formed from the eastern portion of Shenar_&mh County. and in 1836 a part of the counW went m form Warren County. The ar_a of the cour W has remained s_aNe at 512 ._.uare miies ever since the determination of the N_andary betwee_ the Shenand_mh and Frederick c,_mties in the late 1840s (Williams: 409L _n the early t870s the c_mniy wa_ divided into six ma_sterial di.strDL%called "townships" m the tmabimg legislation. (These distric_ are p_rtrayed in the "Outline Plan of Shenandoah fCo_JntYl, Virktnia" from the 1885 Lake Atlas that appear_ after the introduction to thi_ repoin..) Town formation began in ti_e.county even before its division from Frederick. The first formal__ established town was Wo_xL_Xockin M_rch 1761, followed closely by Strasburg in Ntwember 1761 (Henmgs, I756-1763: 406, 474). WoodCock became the coun_ ,_.at in 1772, and Strasburg developed into an impormm regional .pottery center. Other early town_ include Newmarket, M_nt _ack_on, "andEdinb_g. Secondary towns and villag_ developed througimut the nineteenth centuD _, (Due to the _act that. the area in the incorporated town_ of FMinburg, Mount Jacks,_a, New Market, Ton_s Brook, and Swasburg has becm excluded from this survey, the development of these communities is not addressed in this retx_rt.) Prehistoric Native Americ_ Setttemem.: t0,000 B.C-tt06 A.D. E_opean Settlement to Society: I607-1749 Co_ow to Nation: t750-1789 Native Americans probably ftr_ appeared in ihe She_d_Ja County at the end of the rnos_t recent epi,._e of continen*_J glaciation around 10A_)0 B,C, Thi_ earliest era of occupation is referred to by amhropotogk_s as the Paleo-Indian peri_l, extending to 8,000 B.C. Warren Count,. Shenando'Ma's neighbor to the ea_. is home to one of the nation's most significant Paleo- indian sites_ the Flint Run Site (also k_own as the Thtmderbird Site). The stmrse, nomadic Native American populations _ff the I_aieo-Indian perkM hunted game and ga_ered wild ptanLs fbr _bsislence. FoI_owing _ Pak,x_I_dian period w_s the Archaic period (8,000 BXL to 1,2(gYdB.C.), ch_cterized by increment sedentism and a grad_I increase in Native populaiior_s. :_ The WoodFand period (I,200 B.C. to I606 AoD.) _w the imnyduction of agriculture by 1,200 A.D., continued rmp_Jtatiun growth_ and the rise of tribN social struc.x_reSo I_ring the late "_ Wo_xUand period after 1,000 A.D., pallJs_:ted villages begar_ _o appear in Shenandoah C(mnty, r_tabty the Mitey Site near Maurertow_ and the Quicksburg Site on the Shena_oah River near Quicksbur.g. These site's preserve evidence (ff Native American _ifev_ays such as f_d storage pigs, h'eart_ graves, and (at the latter sile) circular dwellings (Lo_: 424-425). Earopean expk_tio_ of the V_Iiey probably began in L_ second h,e3fof the severaee_th cemary, when traders oI_erating _om bases o_ the, Virginia fall lir_ebega_ to pa_ ttumugJ_the m'ea in search of contacts with Native American groups either in the Valley or further inland, An earty_ welt--d_wumeated expeditio_ to the Valley was that of Virginia Governor Alexar_der Spotswood and his "Knights ofthe (]olden Horsesh(_e." In Augu_x arid September of 1716. SpoCswc_d and a par_! of six_-three men and _ven._y4bur horses crossed the Blue Ridge Motmtains ar_ camped on _ banks of the _ Fork (ff the Sher_oah River. Spotswood's precise route is not kr_own for ct_, but one interpre_tionhas him reaching the river _ the vilIage (ff Alma in Page CounW, approximate|y four miles east of the southern tip of Shenandoah County (Dabn.ey: 79). When E_ropean settlers bega_ to move into the Valley during the second quarter of the eighteenth century', Native Americans were apparently no kruger resident., although [_oian hunting and war parties c(mtinued to pass through the area. in fact, owe provisior_ of the 1.722 Treaw of Albaw stipulated that the In4ians were to abandon their north-muth mute eva.stof the Blue Ridge in favor of a froth thr_..gh the VaItey (Newion and Pawlett: 19). The European setllemem of Shenandoah C.om_.Wbegan, m the 1730s, contemporaneous with other areas of the Shenandoah Valley. "fl_egreatesi ivA]gxof settlers occurred in tim late 1760s, as the Valley pro_essed tYoma frontier footing m a more settled, state (Baityn and DeWotfe: 259). Although _ome c_artysettlers trickled in from eastern parts of Virgima, the vast majm_,_ moved i_m the area from the north, principally mutheastem P_nsytvarfia. These seede_*swere _argely Germar_ and Scotch--Irish m ethnic composition, wit_ a scattering o.f E_glish (Mitchell: 34). Generally, _:ttAers were drawr_ ti'om what might be considered uKtay t_ "middle class." As cultural geographer Robert Mitchell has put iL they were "upw_dl.y mobile *Ntarersof"a liberal, mdividuMisiic ideology which they q_ickAy pet i_m practice, by entering the rank_ of landownership _ (Mitchell: i I0). "[he first settler in present-day Shenandoah C(maty is believed to have been George IN)wreak, who _ocated in 1731 or 1732 oa Cedar Creek. Bowman was a mn-i_qaw of ot_e of the Lower Valley's principal early developers, the Germar_ Jost Hire (WayIand, 1927: 49; Mitchell: 2g). Most of the county's initial settlers were apparently Ge,xman, but. the settlement near Memnt Jackson in I734 of three, families with the s_mam_; Allen, M(g)re, and White_ sugge_s E_glish aridor Scotch--Irish were present from the t_gi_g (Wayland, 1927: 49). Some students of the Shenandoah Valley have ciairaexI thai in ce_._in ins_'mes Scotch_Irksh revresente_l a piuaeer vm_guard that sold partially impmv_ holdings m a German. secot_d wave (Waylar_d, 1N)7: 94). Whatever the initiat eNr6c _mke_p of Shenandoah Coe_ty, by the Rew_lutior_D' War period Germans accounted, for a majority of _he white pop_Iatkm.. Based on ar_examinaNm of county records, Mitche|I has estimated the German populatior_ of _be county at 60%, followed by 22% English, 10% S4:o_ch4ri.sh, a_J 8% other. This compares to German populatio_ estimates (ff 43% in Rockingham County a_d 30% i_ Frederick CounW (Mimhel|: 43). The estimate_ Noportio_ of Germans in Shenandoah C()m,_D, is similar m tha_ of heavily German coun_J.es ir_ Southeastern Perm_ytvania; Germar_s may have accounted for 68 % of the poIm.lafio_ oft_caster Count" in 1782 _Lemon; 469). The German a_merica_ majoriLvtranslated imo p_giticM power: "Only in Shet_a_oata Cour_Vywere Germans c_msistently prominent in local t.egislaatres d_ir_g the cokmial period" (Mitchell; 106). The demographic and c_tural ramifications of this strong as adjuncts of German churchea. Lesmns were taught m German fromBibles arid catechisms (Wust: 1t0; Wayland, 1927" 4(x6). After 1760, with the coming of the "New Light." movement in the Shenandoah. Valley, a flurry of ch_ch and school construcfi_m began m tim. Germa_ comm.unig< especially among Lutheral_s, Reformed, Brethren and Dtmkards. Leaders of the German communiVr"grew concerr_ that the yt_anger generation's enthusiasm tbr this charismatic movement was leading them away from their traditional Gem_an heritage. At the .same time, k'x:al leaders reacted to the inacti,)n of the church leadership in Pennsylvania; whom Valley Germans felt faikxl to mpply them with. a .vafficient number ofordained ministers and educated teachers m maintai_ German Seine)Is and chttrclms (W_ast: 66). One "New LighC minister of particu "lar concern to Germa_ leaders was the Reverend James trela.rM, a prominent. Baptiser miniaxer, wi_o settled m New Market and conducted one of the earliea Engtisl_-language _hooIs in the area from I768 to 1770 (Waytand, 1927: 467). Domestic Theme ...._..._lmjlumPer__(!.$,.!..0e..:!.$._.) The bou_ and its complement of domestic tratbuil.dings was an early f_mre of Slm_nig County's cultural tan_l_ape. The t785 state enumevatio_ reported 930 dweIdings in. fl,e cougi"v and i, I86 "other buildings," presumaNy largely a mix of &)mestic and agricultural outbuildings. By 1850, according m the federal census of that year, the n._mher of dwellings had risen to _14... (K:cupied by 2,163 _amitJes. Tim comntv's antebellum housing stock.ranged from simple one-room log houses to Ne m_sive German log and stone three-r_mm-ptan houses con_ructed in the eighteenth and early mneteenth centuries and their mcce&mrs, the Federal-. and C_reek Revival-style doubte-pi_e center-pa,_sage plan houses built on_ of stone, brick, or frame from the tail end of the eightee..nth century through the Civil War (land beyond). The single space in Shenal_d.oai5County's smallest hours, its one-g_my or o.rie-stoW with garret one-room-plan dwellings, pr(Rmbly accommodated most hou_holdactivities from cooking and eating to slee_)ing and socializing without architectttrally-defmed functional differentiation. Hall- parlor-plan houses e_.ibieed some. degree (_ dif_e.rentiatkm, with most daily activities occtming in a main n_m known as the haB., arm a smaller side r(×)m known as the parlor _asedfor sleeping andas a _bes_nx_m" for st_.ciaI occasions such as visits by honored dues%s. A tmlMful of these minima| dwellings dating m the an.tebellum period have been identified in the count. A 1-1/2- story v-notched tog dwelti_g with a whitewashed exterior (85437) is one of these.; another is the .... t-I/2-stoCv v-notched glemirig H_mse (85-143). One section of the possibly eigl"lteenth-ceritt_ry log dwelling on the. Boehm_Coffelt Farm (85-62) appears to originally have been a l-l./2-s_Cy one-r,mm dwelling with a stone gaNe-eI._ chimney and an enc.R._ed winder s_aiiro The county's German _Ners bmttght with them a dis_incNve three-nmm hou,._ plan generaliy known as tlae Is?.uN'ucher,,hauspiano The tNee rooms contained in these houses were _ssociated ti with s3}eeifi¢functions. Usu'ally the Iarges_tmum served msa kitche_ and inform_ sailing r(_<._m and was k,mwn as the Kucheno A.tijoining the _lcuchewas a more tbrmal parkrf or dining r_am k_own as me S/'ubearid a gammer, or bed chamber. Tt_ese roe.ms were usually gax)uped arotmd a cengal chirrm%, roans, although in some inata_ces the chimney was located on _he gable end or ends of the house. The Kuchen extemted from the front to the .rear of the house ant1 was usually sit_aled to the right of the cemral chimney. The wide, from Stube was separated from the narrow, rear Kammer _ a partition. Some Flur_,tchenhaus-ptan dwellings had ogty two r_ms: the Xu&en and an unpartitkmed Sgube. In certain Large examples, a small room w_s partitioned off at the mar of the Kuchen (Chappell: 57; Bucher: I4). The Fturk_chenhaus pla_ was one of several culttwal Waits that distinguished the coun_,'s German majority from other ethaicities. It was often combined with. other arctfiteemrM features such as hillside siting, cellars containing springs, and chal_c.terL_ic'alty German roof structttres. Although cIearky German (or .Penr_Wlvania German) in derivation, the la_u_t_rhenb._s often incorporated architec_t._raifeat_._resthat were Anglo-American in origin° Symmetrical: tripartite door and window arrangements on the principal facade and the migration of the central ciximng to a peripheral placement may indicate "selective cultural assimi|afl_m, _ the gradual adoption of non-Germanic c'baracteristics prior to the eventual abarg&mment of the Iqurb_'henhaus plan after I8(X) (Cbappelk 61-62; Weaver). As of Summer 1993, a total of three houses with classic cenWabchimaey three-_m German plans _orclear evidence of the former presence of s_ac/aplans) have been identified in Shena_,dcm.h CounD. These houses are F_"s Fort (85-58), the E. ]awe House (85-477), and the Dellmger- Vetter House (85-487). h_ addition, six h_mses with ce_wal chir_meys and three room plans are similar to the cla_ssicexamples cited above: the Coffer blouse (8,5456L the Funkhcraser Hcvase on Rt. 263 at Rmkertorl (85-433), the Waggouer-Foltz H_mse (85--482), the two-story tog house r_ex_to Vesper Hail (85-470L the Winde_ House (85-464), and the Stickley family ho-_ on Betlview Farm (85-65). Further mvesiigafion may show that th.e_ tmuses are or were in fact F&deachenhaus-plan dwellings. The p'lan of the aforemea_tioned Van- "Bartor,House (85-40I) h_s German characteristics. The Goclaenom'-Fottz House (_t yet sureeyed) appears to have had a centra_ chimney originally and t-_rssiblya t_cee-room p"Inn,Mtbough in the mid-rdneteenth century the cNmney was removed and the house was given, a double-pile cen_er-pavssage plan. Other h_mses (exta_t and demolish_) that may have _r may have _d German plan elemenls include the Mounce Byrd Hou_ (85-3), the George Huddle H_mse (85-5), _ 'rtm_r_s Hudson House (85-20), the Barb House (85-426), and the Keller H{m,_ (85_71)0 Furore survey will und(mbted|y iden.tig_ ix<we of these significant dwelfizlgs. (The plan of the eighteenth-century house known as Fort B_wman is n_ considered in tiffs account.) The IN',itinger-Vetter Hoe_se i_tusa_ates many _ff the features ass{_ciated with the county's early Germa_ h_ses, .Pr_RraNyconstructed during the _con6 hMf of the eighteenth cen_rv, the Ddli.r_ger-Vetter House is a fulPdove_ited log dwelling with a c'haracierisxic tl_ee-room German plan. Extending from the ho_ase are ext_sio_ of gabte_end w_t kgs that form camfilevered supports _br front and rear tXw¢'hes_ The front and rear entries to the k_che are firmedwith d_tch d_rs hung _ _xought "rat taiV hinge& (,Other early b,au_es with D_tch doors are the Philip _2 Baker Hour. 85_77, and the Waggoner_Fol_ Ho_e, 85482.) The central chimaey mass h_ a large fireplace opening inW the kuche; on the opposite side, facing i,im the stube, is a small .rectangular aperture that formerly received the fl_ of a stove. Under the s_be and kammer is a punche(m fl_)r (halv_ logs laid aide by side that form boChthe floor smacmre and surface), a domestic construction mchnique now extremely rare ni the state. The Dellingt_-Vetter Hot_se ce_tar is a relatively simple sFace compar_ to _ cellars of other early"German houses. Tim remarkable Hu._ Ho_se (85-7) is a three-sleD' _one dwelIing of mghteenth-cen_my date with the two lower stories burr mR}a steep bank above a spring-fed I_3oI in Strasburg. _12_elower cellar features a spring trough and _a_iron-barred loophole window for ventilation; the upper cetIar s_wed an adjoining .kitchen room, Other bank housesinclude, the Philip Baker H(mse (85-77), the Brumback Ho_ (85-202), the John. Beeler Htmse (85462), the Rickard House (85-44I), and the Barb Hemse (8547). The latter two h{mses are otherwise relativeiy typical Angk>American dwellmgs with symmetrical facades and brick- con_cti(m. A number of dwellings with cot'lar s_r_ngs or spring troug}s like the H.upp House have been identified: the Thomas Hudson Hou_ (85-20), the Snapp-Htrpp Hot,so (85-29; otherwise known as Witdflower Farm), the John Beeler House {85-462), the ruins of an eighteenth-century full- dove."qxaitlog house on the Craig_Hetmer Farm (85455), the Coffer H_se (85456), and a wash house/tenant h(mse on the Levi Oochenour property, near Atortzavil[te (85-472). This latter h(mse ihas a s_rmg that flows out of a cleft m the bedrock into a _mi-circutar t_sir_; in the wNl over the basin is an arcimd niche that was pre_mably used _br f_J storage. At the opp<_aiteend of the cellar is a large fireplace that was probably used for _N_I preparation, lard re_dering, ar_ washing. A classic example of a partiMIy accuitura,ed German-plan dwelling is the Van-Barton Hou_ (85 - 401), a t-t/2-story tog dweltmg of"about I800 g4th a symme._cal five-bay front elevation and a reladvety narrow gable-end with an exterior chimney. Squeezed into this otherwise Anglo- American shell is a three-room Oan with undeniable a_alogues of the kuche, stgA_e.,and ka_ner. Emblematic {ff the hybrid character of the h,mse is the front door, which has a conventiomtl Gmrgian rai,._i six-panel _mtside face, and a moiv typicai|y German diagovat beaded balten inside face. The battens are attached with. cotmtersxtak "_dls forming a six-panel design that mirrors the trea,ment of the outside _ace. Symmetrical Ang)(.>American houses made their Sheaa_doaah Co_m_ debut din'inn the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries with examples such as Mt. Airy (85-1 g), the S,__app House (85-12), and Halfway House (85-83). The _pical center passage of these l_uses offered the household a _,ater donee of privacy than the hall-parlor and (to a lesser degree) three-room C_rf_u arrangements, by creating a separate circula_i_m path that obviated the need m pass _hr_mgh living and steepir_g rooms in order to enter or move arouwa inside the .house. By the .second quarter of _ ni_neteeath ce_tu W, mosul_ff the houses _R for the comW's we'.althier h_Iabitan_s fe.atureA,_ymmetrical _b_re_-orfive-bay facades that usually (but r_otatways) reflected a center-passage pl_ on the interior. The majority of these hou,_es featured single-pile center- pas_ge plans in a tw{>sto_ envelope, a form ger_erNly referred m as the I-h_ase.. The targes_ 13 of the upper level _wer the down>slope side of the basement (Ensminger: 53-55). In Shenando_ Coun_ty, as in Pennsylvania, the bar_. type was h_smficalb' re.letted to _ a "Switzer" or "Swisher" harm etymological evidence of its ttItimate origin (Waytan& German Eleme_u: 191: Martin: 38). Urdike the German-derived/aou_'.s that succumbed to acc:tdturation by the early _fineteenth cenm_,, the bank barn was adopted by all colmral gro_s riving m Sttenando_ County. and is one of the more important cuRural co_m:ibufions of the German population° e_mother barn tTpe, generally found in the more mountain(ms sections of the comfy, is bruit {m level ground withom a prqjecting forebay. This type has precedence both in British ar_.d confirmntal cultmes. Agricult_,ral buildings such as barrts are n.ot_rkmsly difficult to date, owing to _ timeless technologies u_,mdh_ their constn_ctio_ and the general ab_nce of St2r.'li_ticfeatures, l_o_bly many _: the earliest barns in the c_mng were co_swacted of togs. O_te tog barn that may date to the late:eightee_.th conraD, is the. WindeI barn (85-'464), which has _'o log traits with batte_ d(mrs co_,structed with wrought nails and hung _mworn-denstrap hi_.ges. ()_ many log barns the wood Kinges of lbrmer _reshi_g floor doors survive, although the doors themselves have been dismantled. O_her agricultural property sub-types may survive from the tate-eightemth-/earty- nineteenth-cenm .ry Imfiod, although none have been d.efin_tively _dentified. A_r_t.e..b...e.,!J.umP__ 8N5-! _) Begirming in 184(}, the federal govemr_'.nt collected agricultural i_for_tkm along with population statistics as part of its decermiaI census, providing the first hard da_a on the nature and scare of Shenandoah C(mnD"s agricultaral prodttcti(m. The 1840 consuls indicates that mixed farming contin.ued as the domin_t form of agriculture in the co_mty, with _me major exceptkm. Flax pr(.vduct_o.r_had attained huge proportions (as the 1810 industrial census had hinted): total county output in 1840 amounted m 116,0(KI p_mnds. Shenandoah's clo_st rivals in the Valley were Botetourt CotmtTr',which produced 74,000 pounds of flax in 1840, and Rockingham ['otmg, which proJuced 37.500 potmds. Many counties of the region reported no flax prc_dlucfion. The magnitude of Shenandoah's flax production suggests thai the crop had acquired a k_c.N im_._._nce comparaNe to hemp or tobacco in other sections of the state. A_ analysis of the three censu_s of t840, I850, 'area1860 reveal certain u'ends ig. Stmnan&_a/a Count) s agriculture. Flax production plum_meteAto 1,465 pounds in 1850. whereas production remained relatively str_mg in r_eighb_ring R_kingham County (12,992 pounds in 1850) and in {he courtties _ff the upper Valley. Corn and especially wheat production remained at fairly cons_ar_t levels comparable to prodaction in Frederick County' but consideraNy less than in the large Valley coat, ties of Augusta and Rockingham. Still Shenandoah Coun V conU'ib_t.ed to the "_: phe_omer_al wheat production of the Valley, the pri.ncipal wheat-growing region of tim So_th dttring the amebellum period (Gray: 876). Oats and rye production fell off duri_g the perk_t, a regional t,e_d. She-rtandoah's othe._ agricuRur'al products included buckw/mat, eIoverseed, grass-_e.d, buckw.t_.eat,rechard p.r_xktcts, arid a small amo_ant of hemp. Sheaando_. wimesaed a decline i-nIivest{mk numbers during _1_e1840 to 1860 perkua, tn 1840 I6 there were 4,153 hor_es, I0,582 cattle, I2,345 sheep, and 16,424 swine in the co_n_. In t860 these _umbers had dropped to L,_26 horses. 6,442 cattle, 3,742 .sheep, and 8_905 _vme_ NeighN_ring cot_nfies also experienced fluctt_ti_ms, b_t n_me saw a steep de*:.tineof all four lives_.ock groups. Information _ffa more anecdo_aI nature e_;is'tsfor S._r_andoah's antebellum a_iculture. Ar_.1835 gazetteer .reporte_t that _e county's fa_n.ers raised wheat, rye, indian corn, arid oats, and prod-aced staples such as tlour, bacon, beef, and butter. The ,same _urce n_ed the use of piaster, clover, and timothy in _anuring fields, _d observed of Fort Vails,, "lt is toIevably _mitfial in grass, corrh we, buck-wtteat, potatoes, turnips, &c" (Marti_: 4_--a,446). The characteristics tt_t define the farm No_y type. and _bqypes for the preceding peric_d also ap#y w the county's antebellum farms. Ot_ea_tebelI_m farm building, _h.ettockman Baa_ (85.- 93) is significant to She_ar_doah Co_ty and to the sta_e on account of it_ extreme rarity as a brick b_k barn with ventilation slits a._tddecorative brick latticework in the gable ends. Anoth.er barn, the Snapp-Hupp Barn (85-126), features brick wa_ls wi_ ventilatio_ Nits on three sides of its bay-mow level. In Pe_msytvan_ia,most brick barns like the Hock_r_anarid Sragg_-Hupp barns were built aliter 1850, althoug_ some date eaa'lier. The accomplished brickwork of s_ch barns may indicate the influence of Anglo--Araerican c_iture on what is tgherwise a G_._a'nar_-derived form (Ertsmirtger: 98-101)o ge_'q_._.s.tna.__.c._.ti.._...n...,m,d_- 19L(i). Duri.r_g the Civil War, Sh.ena_k_ County 'and the o!_tm.rcour_ties of the Valley gained a reputation as the "(3rahab' (ff the Confederacy," INtially, _e Vatley's farm. economy may have benefittexl fi'om hostilities. Many of tim _rea's farmers objected m military _rvice ora religious grounds and instead stayed home to farm, where_asNe enlistment and con_.ripti(m of farra_e_'sand the ge_eral disruVdon of the slave-based ecoru_my interfered with agriculture in ocher regions of the sta_e (Aten etal: 15). The Federal goverr_ment recognized the importaxtce of _e Valley's farms to the Souther_ war effort, and in October 1864 fSen. PhilIip tt. Sheridan set about to destroy _heregion's agricultural pcrtenfial. Sheridan retu_rted: "I have destroyed w,'er 200(t barns filled with wheat, hay _.d farming implements; cwer seveney mills filled with. flour and wheat; have driven in front of the army over 4fff_ l_ead of stock, and have killed and issued to the romps not less than 30(10 sheep _ (Dabaey: 347; Ate_ et al: I0). Sheri 'dar_'s estimate of the number of cat'tie tte drove from Ne Valley equals Ne entire Shenandoal_ Coun_¢ herd. enumerated by the 1860 census. The oral tradilkms of mar_y families in Shenandoah Co_ar_-. eme of the prin.cipal theaters of action, record the de_ails of bar_ bumings arid _ther aspects of the ct)mrnunal calamity. Anecdotal evidence s_aggests that some bar_s were. spared, either l:_rcause t_ey were mia_ed or because they belonged to Union sympathizers. The latter appears to have bee.r_the case in strongly prt._Ur_ior_Fo_. Val_ey; according to a peric_l acc_mnt, "'rt_e Fort has been gr_tly Nvored by the Federads. The torch was applied to almost every barn and mill ",ricingttm Pike t7 and river _ . . whilst ia the Fort _othiag t_at the fiamac_s were bur_ed _ ([2_er from Addiso_ Munch to Sit_s Munct_, March 17, I865, in C|ower, I984)o As armther (second-hand) account has it, an apparent|y empty t()g batik bar_ belonging to the K_n_ family _rtearCalvary we,s Iefl ur_touched becau_ the com_ding officer charge_ with it,s bar_ing intert_reted his orders m apply only to qidI mills _.d barns" (Martin, 1977: 38). Despite the ravages of the war, the decennial agricu|tural censuses of the tare nineteen_ and early twentieth century indicate that Shenandoah County reN)aruled relatively quickly _d eventually sm'passed antebellum levels of production. UnderIying this expansior_, was an increa_ is the amount of improved land available for cultivati(m. From 1860 to 1870, the amount of improved farmland (cropland, cleared pasturage, etc.) i_ the county jumped 50% i}om 76, 64I acres to 114,931 acres. (At the same time, the state total decreased 42%.) The improved acreage comi.nue_i to expand, reaching 143,375 acres in 1890. t3etween 1890 and 1930 the total hovered in the range of 138,000 to 144,000 acres. Paralleling itm expansion in improved acreage was a dramatic i.ac.rease in the number of _N'ms in the coun_, from 493 (according to census compe_ium,_) or abc_t 5 I4 Coa._edon a cars,'y.. scan (ff agricultural schedules)in 18(g) to 1,078 in I870 arid 11,806in 1880. From I890 m 1.930, the number of farms flucttua_.edbetween 2,200 and 2,700. _ inc.res_e in improved acreage did not keep pace with the increase, in the ___t_mberof farms; consequcmtly, the average number of improved acres per farm decreased from about 155 acres in 1860 to I(t6 acres in 1870, 73 a_es m 1880, and 64 acres m 18_1. From 1.89(Im 1930 the average hovered around 60 improved acres per farm. The relative size of ctmnty tkrms "also evolved during the late nineteenth century. In I860, 438 or 88.8?4; of the 493 farms contained fifty to 499 acres. The percentage of these farms gradually decrea_d ti, rough the remainder (ff the nineteenth cermet'; by 189(t the figure stoc_l at 56.7 %., alth{mgh the absolute rmmbcn"of farms in the size range had ir_creased m 1.264 _ut of a total of 2,228 farms. At the _me time, the number and p-ror_mior_,of farms c(m_taining less than rift)' acres increased phermme_a111y,from fifty-three in 1860 (10.8%), to 237 in 1870 (22%), u) 599 in I880 (33.2%), to 922 in 1890 (41.4%). Also, ve_" large farms increased in number, from twelve farms of 50t) or more acres in I850 to fifty-otto _arms of"over 500 acres m 1880 (after 1880, the number of farms in this size .range g_radually decreased). Fi.Reen farms contair_ 1,000 or more acres in 1880. Associated with, but rmt directly corresponding to these developr_en_s was an increase i_ the total population (ff the county. Betweer_. 1860 to 1870. the Fmp_lation of She___andoahCounty rose _Yora13,8% to 14_936. This 7.5 % increase in populatio_ is much sr_ller than the 50% i_crease in the amount of improved acreage during _e peri(u.t and the over 100% i_.crease in the number : of farms. The c(mn_' D)Faiation did increase more rapidly during the 1870s, rL'_g to 18,204 in 1880--a 22 % j-amp over 1870. An explanation other than simple populatio_._g'ow_ must be four_d to expiain, the devek_pments of the 1.860s. The humidor of farms and the amount of improved acreage in farms appea_+to have 18 of nearly e_ceD' ty_3eas_d sub-Lvpe (ff bank baix_ ob_rved in the Pennsylvar_ia Culture Region de,irked by cultural geographers. Perha_ the largest collection (ff barks in the county survives o.athe lVlt.Airy Fa_'m near Mount Jackso_ (85-I8). Located. at the foot of the ridge on which the 1790s Mr. Ai_ House st_slds is _he farm's north mmplex of barns. ]'he largest barn in this complex has Gothic Reviv_-mspir_ gables, bargeboards, and board-and-batten siding, and is probably the pr_tuct of a late-- nineteentb-ce_tu W arc.hi_ectrather than a traditional barn builder. (Another Gothic RevivN barfs is located _m the Newman Farm, 85-99.) Dating to the early twentieth century is the farm's sot_th complex, including .several immen_ gambrel-re, fed _ai_ barns with attached mills f_r _indi_ng animal feed. Ironically, these later barns em.pk)y the m_re tradifi_.malmortise-arid-tenon t_ea_" frame const_ucfiem yet their gambrel roofs reflect N.e influence of nation_l, scientifically- in_k_rmed c_mcepts of barn design. A wide range (ff property sub-types are to be found on Shenando_ County farms of the period, including granaries, pig pens, wagon sheds, t_actor sheds, corn cribs, scales hot,sos, work shops, and silos. On the H_ner Farm near Alor_z_viIle (85-455) is a_._ur_u_aI farm outbuilding: a smalt frame d_'ing house u_d tk_ drying apple "sails." An interesting collection of poured concrete tarm buitdi.ngs appear on a farm near St, Luke (85--423), including _ pig pen, a chicke_._ house (dated 1914)_ a wash house, and a si|o. An unusual number of Nmred concrete fam_ buildi.ags N)pulate the vicini_ of this farm. _.._:_.d...d.....W..._r...._IJ_w_ ( !,9L7::..I.9£.5.). The p_wiodbei-ween the two world wars saw t_e further developme___tof a trend that characterized the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries: the increa_d s_oecializati.onof the cotmty's agriculture. Apple pr_uction continued its spectac_Iar ri_, with production, topping 711 ,(i_ bushe_ in 1.930and 741,00() bushels in i940, accordir_g t_ the agriculmrN cer_sus of _hose years. The I940 figure represent_l over 6% of the state's total output. Pn_bably due to its gc_ rail facilities, the coun V ranked among fl_e slate's mp apple shippers (Moore and Miller: 29). The Turkey K_ob orchard near Qui.cksNarg encompassed 1,400 acres, _n.d was one of o__ly two i_viga_ed apple orc "t_ardseast of Ne Mississippi River (ibid.). Peaches and grapes were "also practiced ors a commercial scale in the county during tt_e period, b_t did not alFpr_crachapple production in importar_ce. "Oar county has more poultry .t_:r square mile _has_any county in Virginia, _ wrote one local observer i.r_193I. T_e total value of eggs and poultry sold in I928 am(mated to $971,600, greater than any tN_er class of crop or livestock pr(_tuct, including ;_pples, which brot_ght $680,(Y_3 (Ibid.). Shenandoah Cotmty remained as_ impos_nt producer of more. traditional commercial agy*icultural producis; the 1.925 harvest (ff over 409,_10 bushels of wheat ranked arao_g the largest in the s_ate accordi_sg to the agricultarat census of that year, surpassed only by the neighboring cotmfies of Augusta and Rockir_gham. [f the _tuantity and value of agicu_tural producks is any guide, She_n.doah (:kmnD'does _)t seem 2I m have suffered appreciably from the r_tion-wide agficuRuraI depression of file 1920s. However, the general L_pression of the 193(_ did have a protbuod effect _m the cotmty. According to the agricultural censuses, the total amount of in,proved acreage in farmsdipped ffo,r_ I38,854 acres in 1930 to t02,0(gd acres in I935. and improved acreage, remah_ed lower than the late-nineteen_/early-twenfie_-ventury norm in I940. Cor_ and wheat producti_m were also dow_. As noted ir_the disc_ssion of farm property types for the preceding period, the traditional heavy- frame Pennsylvania bank barn remained the normative barn form into the early twe_ti.eth ceatu_. The continued _pularity of {he form can be attributed largely to its functional superiority. Reinforcement may al.v) have come from ag.icultural research institutions and the agricultural press, which promot_ bank barns during the late g.ineteenth and early twentieth ct_turies. Several property sub-types associated with I.muItry prc_luction deserve comment. Typically dt_ring the pericvd, chicken h(m._s were crude frame s_rucmres, ofter_ wifl_ shed roofs and math- facing windows. Another form unseats in Shenandoah Couney, the so_catled rou.r_dbn.uoder house. Round br{_oder h(.mses have circular or r_earty circular plag.s that are said to have prevemed chicks from piling up and suffocating in corners. The majority of the county's ......... mun.d brooder houses are frame, although one same one was observN (g5-458). Toward_s the middle of the twentieth cemm2y, farmers {mgan to construct _large,often multi-story chicken and turkey houses. Early examples of these large poultrf hours survive in C_xticvil_e (85402) and at Smith Creek Farm (85- t33). A huge exampte from. a later W.riod was surveyed _m the B. F. Humsum Farm (85-191). Education Theme _. 7- -12t) During this perkvd, Shenandoah County _w a continuation of the struggle by the German community to preserve its cultural idcmtity through its schools and churches. ]'he German edocational instimfiea_s main.mined to have a strong link. with the church, and together these ms_dtutions worked to _._sure that Gerraan be the "language useA in church and _hc_l, N_me (_rman sch(mls established d_ir_g this peri(rd include _me at Sok)m(m Church arom_d 1796, in Stra._ttrg around I799, i_ New Market in 1804, and an elementapy sch.(ml at New Market in 1805 (Waylaid, 1927: 11, 1.60, 466; Wast: I60). At tim same time there were severai leaders in the German community who attempted to assimilate the German population into the English culture of the Valley. They were able to do this tt._roughthe introduction of the English lartguage in the church and throt_gh publicafio.ns for children _at used Gemmr_ and E_glish. v_K'abutary. The Henke_s, who established a press at New Market in 1806, published bilingual N_ks for childrert. Thc._sebooks i_.cIaded the "German Vi_rginia Children's Book" of 1807, followed by the "Virgirda ABC and Name B(mk" in 1808 and the "targe ABC Book" published in 1817 (Wast: I56). Samuel Simon Smacker, as well 22 as oflmr L._ather,'mmh_isters, gradually in_uc_3 English into _e church _rough his sermons, 1.n1820 he e_hlisbed a sch_ in New Market that was charged with/raining ministers in both English and German. In 1826 Smacker moved his ,_h_x_i to Oettysbt_rg: Pe_msyivania, where it develop_ into the Gettysb)arg Theological Semixiary 0bid,: I64). English schools became more mamero'as in Shenando_ Coumy during the early ni_eteenth. cenmD'. These sch{g}ls were operated in much the _me mariner as _e German _:hools, providing the basic eAucatio_al skilIs of reading, w-tiring, and ciphering. For ttmse students desiring an education beyond that cR_tainedm primary schools, seminaries and academies began to appear in tim county. In 1804, the state le_slamre permitted the holding of a tottery m .raise money for a _minarv in Strasburg, the first English school in that. town (Wwiand, 1.927: 466- .4457). In 1817, the legislature granted charters for the establishment of W_._.xlstockAcademy and New Marke.t Academy (Wayiand, 1927: 469; Wast: 162). As an institution of Iean_g, the academy became very popular in the South from the 1830"s t_m._ughthe Civil War. The early academies were e_ablisheM mainly ff._rmen providing an expanded c_mcutum much like that used later in high sch_ls. They were financed by tuitions, Iotteri.es, endowmems or a combinatiori of tim three and governed by a board of trustees (Cremin: 427L Few rural sch{_l houses dating to this period have bee___ider_fifi.edin the cou.nty. A possible early-nineteenth-ce.nturv same school ho_se survives at si_e 85-59. An__.¢t_.e..._!u..m....P_i.._M._!..Sa_E!.86_) _W_g_8.61::!865.). Educational (RRmrt_nities m Sl_ena=doah County increm,md and became more _miver.vd during the decades preceding the Civil War. A _eater number of comm.uni_ scla(×}Iswere established, and se_'ondary edncatiol_ai facilities were estaNished for women. The period also witnessed the disappearance of German schools. Leaders of Ne Germa_ community began m recognize and tmderstand the vah-ie of tI_ English culture in their lives, as welt as the use of the. Englist__lang_aage. As a result, more a_,d more Germans begar_ sending their childret_ to Et_glish sch{_}ls (Wu_X: I59-162). in a report sent m the Virginia Synod in 1830 by the Lutheran church in Shenaudoah Com_t-y_it was noted that only one £_k.'rmarischool still existed in tim cotmty (Wast: 1611). Another sig_ of this assimitad(m was Ne decision of the Heakel Press to discontinue wi_nting its children's books and even its churct_ literature in the German Ia_guage by 1841 (ibid.: 157). By 1830 residents of many communities throughout the county had barided t_gethcw to establish sch_ls for their children. These commt_nity schools astrally provided instru.ction in reading, wri.dng, and ciphering tttrough the seventh _ade. Tt__eywere usually l_ou,_.t in a one--room buiRling k>aated within five miles of _e residents using _e scttooI. The operati.o,__and management of these .schools wa_scontrolled by the commu_tity, which saw to _e maimenat_ce 23 I_ additkm to leading the fight fbf compuisoLv educatk)n, Shoemaker was i_rumenml in the consolida_.i_)nof Shena_doah C'ou_ty schools a_.d the initiatior_ of an extensive b_ild_ng program ia _i_elate I930°s. _Whe_ Mr. Shoemaker u_k office i_ 1913: there were _venty-mne scl_ools in the c_mrW mnployirtg 156 teachers. "['herewere {i_ua"schools for blacks. Wl_en he resig_.ed i_ I94I, Nere we.re _NW-six sci_ools employing l_i teachers" (ibid.: 24). "lTkr(mgb Sh_e_ru_ker's eN_rts, most of the one r_m schoolhouses were closed by the Nil _ssim_. of 1939 (ibid. 25--27}. Mso during this perk_, t__eschool year was leng_mned m nine mo_l-hs and new c:m'ricula were introduced. Under the Smith--Hugges Act, agriculmre and home economic c_asses were es_ablishea_1. TN.: lirst vocationat-agTicult_ral departments were fommA at Woodslock and Strasburg high sch(×fls in 1925. Vocatkmal-a_icuttural classes were adde, t to the curriculum at New Market High Sc_moI in 1926 _ m Toms Brook a_ Fglinb_g high .vch{mlsin 1.93i (ibid.: 67L Home economic classes bega_ a_:W_slock a_.dStrasburg high sch_mls in 1930 and in the four other high schools in I934 (ibid,: 77). Music, physica_ education, and hearth programs were also in.traduced imo the curriculum (ibid.: 25-26), In 1926 a Shenandoah County Geograpt_y Supplement was writteg _._ytwo Sher_a_.doah.C(mmy schooI educators; James M(_re, tMndpal of Toms Nrook High School, and MarguerRe Miller of Oranda School (ibid.: 25; Wayland, 1927: 448). MiRon _tollingsworth., superintemdent form 1940 m 1945, completed _heconsofidatkm effort a._d building program begun by C. V. Shoemaker. By I945 there were six high s-ch{_otsand ten graded schools i_ the comity. B_acks in t_e count were busext to Manassas f(_r vocational Wai_.ing. For a high school education, blacks tiring in the southern end of the county were bused to Harri._}rfburg arid those in the northerr_ end were bused to Winchester (Echoes: 42). Cor_so_i.datio_.meam a decrea_ i_. the _umber of n_ral sch{_ls built in the com_ly. (_e (ff the few schools built during the perkN (_}rt_assi.bty the early posI.-war p¢_.od) is kmated in _e village of Columbia Furnace (85_400): a one-story stretcher-bond brick or briek--ca,s_t_ buildi_}g _m a raised baseme_t witl_Colonial Revival details such as a c_txfla a_d quoining. Mili_ry Tt_eme _2iyi!...N_}-:!.8.6.51 As with the re_ of the Valid< Shena,_doat_ ('oun_3" was come_ by Federal and Co._federate forces throughout the C.ivi| War, The strategic importa_ce of the Valley gas t_r_ summarized as fol._ows: "()_r_federate an_ies _d the Stmnandoah Valley as a r_at_ral corrid_r to invade or threaten invasior_, of the North° Because of its sout1_.wes_t-northea.st{uSentatiom Confederate armies marchi_g dovm the Valley approacI_:d Was_aingt_ma_d Baltimore, while Union armies marching up the Valley moved farther away from Richmond" (Aten et at: t4). The Valley also pr_wided the C'onfed¢_acy with a relatively cow,ceaSed staging ground fl)r its milita_" oIX..w'atior_s. 26 Important battles were fbught at New Market, Fishers Hill, Toms Br_k. and Cedar Hil_ in Shenandoah County during _e Lynchbt_.rgCampaigr_ of May arid Jurm 1864 and the early months of Sheridan ,._Valley Campaign du_,g the se_'ond half of 1864. [r_ May 1864 a Federal force of 6,275 men ur_der the command of General Franz Sig.el marched up the Valley to cut Corffedera_e. st_pply _d. communications lines at Siaranton i___or,Jet to a_is_ Federid operafior_s i_ Piedmont Virgi_aim (_ May 15 at the northern outskirts of New Market the FenieraI ca'my met a force of 4,090 men. under tim command of Confederate general Joh_ C. Breckinridge. "l_e ensuing battle resulted in the defeat of S_gel and the |_s of 146 lives. As a result of New Markel. Sige] was replaced wkh Gerteral David Hunter, who campaigned succ_sfulty in the upper Valley before retreating. Confederate gener',fl Jubal A. Early then occupied the Valley and from it launched attacks on Ma_land, Pennsylvania, and Washhagton (ibid.." 18, 26.-27). Far more momen_ous for the Confederacy and for Shenandoah County were the events of September and October 1864_ General Ulysses S. Grit, then in command of the Fexteral armies, sought to break Confederate strength ir_ the Valley. He chose General PhiIlip H. Sheridan for the task in Au..gt_st1864. After a series of encounters i.r_Maryland and VirgNia culminating in a U_.km v_c_oryat the battle of Opequon or Third Winchester, Sheridan's 29,444- strong army pursued Ger_c_alE_rly's _brce of 9,._)0 men to the farter's e._fenchrnents at Fishers Hill. Fighti.eg o_. September 21 and 22 resuRed i_ eigt_ty-two faalit_es and forced Early to withdraw Nrther _>_ath. Over the following weeks, Sheri 'dan's army laid waste to the area's Nrm_ m what became known as "The Burning" (ibid. ° 21, 26-27). garly .'._.n_ckback. on (_k:tobe.r9 N_t his cavahaj was defe_ted N.the battle of Toms Brook, Early persisted, reoccupying the fo_tificatkn_s at Fishers Hill on October 13 and In,inching an attack on Sheridan's army, then ermamped ia Frederick Cotmty. On ()c_a)ber 19, Early_,'s .force of 15,265 me_ attacketl the Federal army of 31.944 men. ir_the bat.t_eof Cedar Creek, fought in both Frederick a_d Shenandoah counties. What la_ked like. a Confederate vieto D"in the morning was rever._.d in the afternoon, and Early retreated southward. With 964 .fatalities, the battle of Cedar Creek proved the Va_ley's bloxliest. After Cedar Creek, Garry attack_ t,be Federals at Rude's Hill .i_._Sheaar_.doat_.County on. November 22 and et_where but could not diskxlge the enemy. Sheridan's des_racNm of pmdtme ar_t livestock in Octobe.w 1864 deprived the Confederate army of win.ter provisions, and in the tbllowi_g spri_g Early was finally defeated and Confederate control of the Valley end_ (ibid., 22, 26-27). Civil War defensive works s_rvive in _he amnV_yon a hill. overlooking downu_wn Strasbu.rg_ i [mt_nant balilel]elds are Fishers Hill (85-t) at_d New Market (85-27)_ (These battlefields were not r_._urveyed.) .... ! Religio_ Theme _. fly..Na_ia_._...P_r_._N..tL79.@J..S29.) During this period three, new church lx_ies appeared in Shenandoah Count'; the Methodists, the 27 Presbyteria_L and the United Brethrer_. The period is also marked wi_h controversy concerning the use of fl_e English language and, in some cases, t+_;ngIishdoctrine in the German churches. Bishop Francis Asbu_ Waveled fl_rough Shenandoah (loun_, at least e_ght times during the period, stopping to preach in 1790 at Bethel near R_ Bm_ks and at the Episcopal Church in Woodcock, and again i_ I806 in Strasburg (Wayland, 1927: 405, _?9, 425). A_ury commenwxl on his t790 visits in Ns diar): "We had a crowd of pex_pteat Bethel, who appeared ve_" insensible. Rode on to Miller's Town, properly W__M.s_ck; here. l wa,_permitted u_ preach in the Episcopal Church, many attend_ and behaved welt, and I had light and liberty in speaking" (ibid.: 40.5). Two met_ig ministers were licen_d in She.nando_h.CotmV i_ 1792 and the first church boiiding used fi_r Meth(vdist worship was built around 1.808in W_xwtsU)ck (ibid.: 427, 429). By .[822 thr_: Pre,_.yterian churches had beam established m Sbenandoaih C_mn_', one at Woodslock and two at Strasburg. in 1824, the Reverend William H. ]?_u.)teorganized these three congregations into the Unio_ Church of Shenandoah Count, with thirty-one members. Then in 1826 the Union Church was divided into _he WoodsI(K:k and Strasburg Presbyterian Churches. The S_asburg c(mgregatio_, dedicated their first church b_ilding in 1830 and a church at W(._._dst_x:kwas era'ted around t 833 (ibid.: 431--432). The third new denomination in. Sher_adoab Cotm_ was tt_: United B_threm Armmd 181/0, Retbrmed Pastor Witliam Otterbein and Mennonite Martin Boehm tbunded the United Brethre_ Church that taught the d_.mtrine of evangelism and a fl'eer communion much like that of the Methodists. In.fact, they were sometimes called German Methodias. "['heminsters in this new church would preach with Methodisl minis_r:s at camp meetings through(mr the VaI_ey. This biiinguall team was very effective with the Germans of the Valley (Wayland: _44-446, Wtast: 134-135), Mirroring struggles i_ the German sch_vJls of the peril, Ne German churches debated the question of using English insiead of Germa_ for church services and publications. German church elders _velieved their traditions and values were not being transmitted to younger ge_aerad.ons, and the language issue was at the heart of their concerns. "['heHenke[ I_ess, as well as other con_.'n, ative printers, ccmfinued to prin_ church literature in German throughot_t the peri_xt (W_: I57). The lack of English t_anslations of church catechisms and other d_._ctfinai literature contribuIea! m the continued use of German in the German churches, eNvecially the Lutheran Church. However, some O_._nart churches during Nis periodbega_ to Mlow the use of English in _rmons, and chtarch records were increasingly kept iri English (ibid.: 140}. l[n the Lulheran Church, the language issue was as_iated with d_ctriral quesfi(ms d_at event_mlly led _othe division of Lutheran congregafi(ms throughout the st_le arm c(mW into the ]'_._messe.eSyn_M, orgar_iz_d by Paul Henkel in 182(/, and the Virginia Syn_, olNanizod in 1829 (ibid.: 137). Be,cause the Reformed Church had similar religious te.ne_s a,s the Presbyterian Church, it lost membership due to the language iss_ae. Likewise, the United Brethren lost membership to the E_N/ish speaking congregations (ff the. Methodi_ Cbt-_.rch(ibid.: 141). 28 Hea_th Care aad Recre_tio_ .Theme One outcome of improved road and rail con_.ections was tt_e development of springs resorts in She_a_d(_."h Couru.y. Since early settlemer_t the county's mineral N._ringswere vaIt_ed for lt_eir al_ege_l curative powers. The county's largest and most Nmo_s re.._rt, Orkr_ey Springs. was frequented by the afflicte_l as early as the Revolutionary War period. Early accommodations were simple: ten_s (_rtemporary i_N hug erected by aNacent landowners (Co_en: 80). Samuel KerchevaL the Va_ley's earliest cN_micler, rec_)llected one Orkr_ey Spri_gs-goer of the 1820s hauling in framing mernt_vs, weatherboards, a_d shingles for a simple cottage erectoJ.-in the space of a day and a t_Nf (Kercheval: 332). The pace of devel(g_meet qtfiekened in the mid- .mneteenth ce._mry, facilitated by _2heS(mN's expanding rail network. Wealthy plar_ters and __rbanitesfrom the southern tidewater fl_)cked to the Virginia mountains duri_._g_he gummer as a relief from heat and yellow fever. Patrons were al_ drawn by the opportunity to socialize amid breath.taking mountain sc,en.e_T,an attraction that may have been m(_re germane in. the case of the She_and(_h ('(runty resorts, which w_wefrequented by visitors from Ne Midd|e Ailanfic _tates. |rgliallv. the leading springs resort in the cotmty was Burner's While S_lplaur Springs (a/so kr_own as Seven Fountains), located in Fori Valley. In 1.85(},N(_h Bm_er built a _hree-sto_¢ frame hotel arid bal_r(×_m, gueg co,teases, and b_thieg houses Clower: 27). '1t_e res(m bo_steA "Eight Springs of Nffere_t waters . . . White, Blue, and B_ack Sulphur; also Chalybe_te, l.Amesm_.e, Freestone, Slatestone, and Alum water, _ and peried advertisements solicited patronage from IgNfimore, co.m_ect_ to the lower Siaenand_h VNiley by the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad (Mordecai: 13). Ork__leySprings (85-39), incorporated in i858, deve.loped _m the opposim side of the count}, in the shadow of the Great North Mountain (Wayland, I927: 212}. A1thoo.gh the first subs_nlial structure, Ne two-gory Mary._a_d House, was erected in 1853, a village existed at Orkney Springs prior to the 1850s (l.x_t_:425). Both the resort and its support commtmity experienc_d Neir greatest growth. _.tter the Civil War. On a smaller scale of operatio_as than the spriags re_rts were the taverns _nd t_ou_s of public entertainment _l_ri_k|ed across tt_ Shenando_ Cotmty landscape. Amo.r_gthe more impressive of these is Crabil 'I'averr_.(85-.97), an ear_y-Nneteent_century brick building. Many private homes provided l_×INng for travelers and other guesL_ Ork-_ey Springs t(×_k its p_ace as one (ff the premier wateri_.,g place___in the state aft_ the Civil War. lr_ 1876, I_e springs l_rowietors erected _t_; Virgi_ia H(m_, a fo_r-sto_, colossus with a t55'×40' dirking ha_l, a I00"x50' ballr(_m, a reading re,(_m,a billiard return, 175 bea_tre_)ms,and ar_ ornamental p_lesirian bridge linking it to the verandas of the [_laryland House. By the late 3_ 18g0s the resort al_._ emastc_a Jersey R_w, a file of seven two-story guest cottages; an oc.tagotaal band stand; a te_ pin alley; several spring houses, ice h{mses, sod auxiliary N._ildings; and a quadrangle of g_est houses of vao'ing shapes and sizes known as Var_Burenvitle (Cohen: 8%85; I.ake)^ 1"he village of Orkney Springs prospered with the resort. Miss A. M. Str_Ning operated a boarding Nmse in the village .fi_rIess afflt_enl-visitors, J. H. Smurr kept a saloon _br those who required s_onger medicine than mineral water to relieve their afflictions, and several merchants sold groceries and dry"g_s m g_aestsand local de_.i_,_nsa_ike (I.ake: Chataig_m, 1884_1885, i893). In 1_008,William R. Bryce of Philadelphia acquired a farm near f_:kney Springs and began the development of the Bryce Resort (85-415). Bwce convert_ a pre-exis*_ng _armh.ouse into guest facilities, built two lodges adjacent m it, and in the earl), 1910s began the construction of the detached Rustic_styIe cottages that eventually numbered twenty-two in all. The resort oi:}ered da_ci_g, bowling, cr(Nuet, tennis, )_o_.'seback_ding, and mountain climN_g, and asst_.re_tguests that the kmation was flee of maIaria and did not cater m c_msumptives. In the 1960s the resort management opened ski slopes and began ma ambition,s de.vek)pment of private, homesites and condominiums, t_, 1993 the re.sor_ was worth $120 miltio_, am'l generated 14% of co_mty ta._ revenues (Bryce: "Br3Jce's Hillside Cottages")° B_._mer'sWhRe Sulpimr Springs, or Se_en Fotmtains, decli_ed after the Civil Wax, but boarding houses ,¢_k the place o*7the hotel and a ten _fi.r_alley remained in operation (Ctower: 27; Cohen- 25; Lake). A third re_)r, was deveh.._pedin the 1870s by A. J. Myers at the site of the defunct Iqenriet,a Furnace (Wayla_d" I5|). Shenal_d_-_ Alum Swir_gs (85-44), as it was known, featured two h.om_buildings, a row of k_g gues_ cabins (possibly re_'ycled ironworker housing), and the obligatory ten pin alim, and colorf,_Hy..named minexal swings (I.ake).. _..",s_La..r...I..._._.__y"_: AAA,! ..9..!.2: t9A45_ Sprfi._gsre_)rts throughout Virginia suf*_re_tdecline during the fir_ half of the twe._tieth century, _argely d_mto the develop_mnt of more exotic _oo.r_stdestinatior_s and the accessibility of _o_: _,|e.s_inations by automoNte. Orkney Springs fared better tha_ most resorts, 71_the 1960s, {he American Symphony f_c_est,'a League es_blished a summer institute at the resort, and i_ 1979 Orkney Springs was acquired by _t_eEpi._opal Diocese of Virginia, wt_ict_has ander_aken an ambition re.movation of the many surviving historic buildings (Cohen: 84). The year 1922 ,_w the cormnercia_ transformation of a cave near Quicksburg in_o Shenandoah Caverns (85-166). served direzNy by Ne Southern Railroad° "An electric lighting system sufficient to illuminate a town of two th<.msa_d people" war installed to accomm(ulate, the _h(msand_ of __ris_s who visited every year during the I920s, a_d a three--_ory rock-laced co_.crete_block hotel was constructed at the cavern er_trance (Way,arid, 1924). To further tempt weeken.d st._e.lunker_, the mar_gement endowed the cave's natural formations with r_ames such as Diamond Ca_ade, Grove of t_e Druids, and Rainbow I._tke (M_)re and Miiter" I5). 32 TransporEat_on Theme AI] aspects of Shenandoah C(mn_'s early economy de_xmdeAon tra_sI_)_tio_. Tim principal lar_d route during the t_,'ri.odwas the Val|ey Rimd, also retorted to as the Gre_t Wagor_ Road, that exteridexl from Philade,lph_a _u_westward down ihe cenier of Sheriandoah County and ultimately irito _t_eCarolina Piedmont, This route b_'ame a conduit for settlers moving into and through tt_e area and for the transl-_rt _ffagriculmml products to tidewater markets and finished goods to _e backccmm._,, Winchester, located to _e rtorth of Shenaridoah County, beeame a point of intersection for roads leading east and west, as did Staunton m the s_mth of the coung {Kalbian: i50; Ne.wk.mand IXawlett: 19). The section of the great road leadir_g southwestward from the souti_em bounds W of Shenandoah C(mmy was aim kn_._wrtas Ne India_ Road. The Shenand(_ah River cor_stituted ar_importunertransportation route. Batteaus-=si_ailow-draft, k_l- N)ttomed boats-.--plied the river from the eighteentt_ century into the mid-e._ineteemh centuLv_ car_y'ing bun agricultural and industrial goods to market. Ae+_@.¢..t!.u.m_J'__83(_-i_kS(_ Shena.ridoah Coumy tmderwent a tremendous e..xparis_onof its transportation infrasmicture during the antebellum period. Roads and waterways were considerably improved, enbancirig the coumy's access to d_istm_tmarkets a,__daccderating inte_ation witt_ _e _ationat economy and natiorml c,_lture. "['herailroad made it first irtroadosinto the courtb' during the peril. The Valley Road became the su_iect of renewed attention when a IN.rd Valley Turnpike Compaw was chartered in 181Mwi_ the goal of macadamizing the great after from Winchester to Harrisonburg. One of the road:s engineers was 3o_lph Andersom later head of the Trextegar [tort Works in Richmond and owner or. lessor of the county's iron fumace.s (Wayland, 1967: 2, 13-15: Newlon and Paw]tett: 19-20). With its extension via o_er turnpikes into S(mthwest Virginia artd poinls west by mid--century, the hard=surface Valley Pike rep.re_nted one of tt_e nation's primary land rtmtes. Tl_e success of the Valley Pik.e genera.{ed a turnpike mania, lncreask_gly, the old method of k_:al surveyors and laboring tkhables gave way to a system of profes_umally martaged, capitalized, and sa_metimes state subsidized turnpike comparties. Tl_e town of New Market aNmars to kave taker_ tim lead ir_ these developments, first with the irtcorpoiatio_ of the Newmarket a_d Buffalo Springs Turnpike in 1839-1940, a_d then vAth Ne incorN_ration of the Newmarket arm Specryville Turnpike in 1847=1848. The latter mad was the only major route to cross the Massanutten Mounlai.r_, tirtkmg Ne Valiley and the Piedmont via Luray (Aten. et N: 14). The I850s _w a flurry of incorporations including the Mo-unt Jackson. and Howard's Lick Turnpike, the Mount- _lackN>nand Howardsville T_arnpik.e, _e Strasburg arm Cat_-m %_mpike, and the W_dstock and Warde.nsville Ymmpike (Williams). These regional turnpikes cont_ibttted to the economic development of Ne county by alleviating one of the primary tJ_miti_r_gfactors: bad roads. Their impact on the cuit_rM developmertt of the county would be hard to quar_d.fy, l_ut 33 Durirtg the eighteg_.nth,century', mos_ comme_:cial activity took ptace in Shenandoah County's towns, Presumably, stores were located in rural areas as well. Stores and o_er commercial protmrty t?T,es are virtually non-.existem for this period of the comW's hist,©,. Cme notable exceptkm is Moore's Store (85-33), a one-story, two-urtit, brick building, possibly daN_g to Ne early nirmteemh ce_tuW, that fbrmerly contained a post office aed store or office. The majority of S.henand(_h Cour_ty's historic rural commercial buitdir_gs dam to the lain nirmteer_th and early twemieth ceatttries. By 187I, _e date of Amtrew Boyd's I2irgo_ia Sga_e Business Diree_ou, approximately fiReer_ stores had been established outside of the coumy's larger mwr_s. By I893, this number had grown U_fifty-two (Ct.m{aigne, 1893:1149-1 t5t). Most c_fthese country store.s w_e located in villages and smatL1towns a_d were uswatly operated i.r_conjunction with post offices. Typically_ cour_try stores sl_ared a similar gable-fr_mted form, sometimes witt_ a side sh_ that was usext lbr bulk storage. The upper level of tw_>-story stores was also usedfor storage, but occasionally it served as kKtging or meeting space as well. A prime example of the commercial prcNerty type is the Ephraim Baker Store (85`473) in the village _f Mr. ()live. The origina_ one..st_.wys_:tion of tbe two-story flame store was pro_lyably built in 1867 (the date of the store's earliest survivi_r_gledger), and the upper story added _m afterwards. Off the nor{h side of the store is a wing %r bMk _orage; across the from of the stere"_ • extertds a reworked one-stoD, porch. The beadedqmard-sheatl_ed interior of the store's m.air_sales space _eatures king wooden, cou-aters and. shelves lining the walls. Ar_other well preserved late-nineteemh-centuD, store that also Nnctiorted as a post office is the L<.mkstampfer House a._d Zepp Post Office (85-47). W+_r|.4.}¥..a..r...L_.ff_i! .9.!2:::!.9...4.).'.) Commerci',d developmem in the county's rural areas slackened after World War I, with fewer count_/ stores constructcxI in villages arid small towns. The ir_creasing popularity of the automobile gene.ratM several char_ges in the county's rural commercial architecture. First, ga_s pumps and driveq.t'tro_gh canopies began to appear _mthe from of some store buildirtgs. Mso, ak-mg maj_ routes such _s the [me Highway, hard_urfac.ed m the 1920s, fillirtg statioas, motor courts, a,}d di,_ers sTa'ar_gut_. A fine example of the fi]tigg s_fior_ property type is a I920s or 1930s statio_ ix_ Columbia Furnace (85`4tN) _hat features i_gi_mtive limestone masortry^ Similar stations were built up and down the Lee Highway in adjoining coup.ties, f_.N_erearly service stations idemified by the survey include Rude's Hill Grocery (85q47} and a store and service station {mRt. 720 (K%t50). Also aKsociated win increased automobile use is Dorott_y's tnn (85--197), a wNte quartzite.-fae.ed building with stepped gable parapets constructed o_ a.bluff beIwee,_ the L,>eHighway and t_e Sheaartdoal_ River ir_the t920s or t930s. 36 l-_d_s_ry Theme Shenandoah County l-_s been d_ribc_ as a "l_diag iron-producing county of the state _ for the period before the Civil War, a di.stinctioa it gained at an early date (Watson: 430). One of the Shena_.doah Valtey's earliest furnace a_d forge complexes w_.s established, in fl_e mid-eighieenth century by Isaac Zane or_both sides (ff C_ar Creek at Marib(_ro (the furnace itself was situated on the Frederick Cotmty side of l-he creek). Apparently the first furnace physically h_ated within Shenandoah (;ounty:s present boundaries was Columbia Furnace (85-400), sited on. Big Stony Creek where it issues from the moantains six miles west of W___ts_k. Columbia Furnace was developed by George Mayberry & Compa W st_ortty a_er 18(-}0;in 1808 it was acquired by John A_.ihar & Company and afterwar&s w_s commonly known as Arthur's Furnace. Another early fi_rnace was LibeVty F_trnace, established around 1821 _veral miles t_pstream from Columbia Furnace (Wayland, I927: 237-238, Bruce; 454). Pig iron was the principal Wc_uct of the early fire,aces, and was either sold m kNal blacksmiths or trans_ed by bateaux or wagon to Fredericksburg and other tidewater markets (Wayland, 1927: 24I). The importance of the iron iadus_'y and other mantffacturing enterprises can be read in the population statistics of the t 820 federal cenms. Of Shenando_ Count, residenk'_engaged in agriculture, commerce, and manu_hcturing, the proportion of the latter was 20.9%, whereas statewide the percentage of individuals involved in manufacturi_g was I0.4%. iron mantffacmring became even more important in Shenand_xah County during the antd_ellum period. Columbia Furnace s_.pported a popula_i{m _rf 200 workers and others by Ne t830s (Martin: 452). The 1830s ,saw the addition of fi)ur more f_n_ces m the cetmty: Paddy, l{_'ated on Cedar Creek near the Frederick C(mnty line; C_rotine Furnace, located st the southern end of Fort Valley; FountFurnace, also k_aow_as Elizabeth Fo.nr_ace,located at the _orth end of Fort Valley; and Van Buren Furnace (85-51). h)cated at _he headwaters of Cedar Creek (Brace: 454; Gilmer). The location of these fttrnaces in the heavily forested moan 'tain{ms areo,s (ff the co,rely was intentional; tim Nmaces requir_ charcoal for fuel, and the pr___ucN}n(}fcharcoal consumed vast quanti_ies of timber. ONer factors in _e siting of farr_ces were the availability of iron ore, limestone lk._rflux, a_.d water power to operate 0._eh_agefurnace bellows and (when a _brge was associated w_t_ the f_rnace) trip hammers. As at Coh_mbia Furnace, work camps _d occasio_aily b<ma .fide communities sprang up around the furnaces. Workers at Henrietta F_rnace (a_ot_er. Civil War-era fur_ace locat_ near Otksev Springs) may have been Na-used in a row of a halIado:een or ._) h_g cabNs_ as was the practice in the iron manu_)cUaring regioB of astebel.h_m Pennsylva_'_ia (Lake). '/'he 1860 industrial census contains detai_ed iet_rmation on the _:ale and workings of the cou_,'_s iron furnaces. The ceas_as lists four mamffact_rers of pig iron with one _arnace "in cour,_, of c(mstracti(}n. °° The fou.roperationa_ furnaces employed a mt_l of l_,-.eight workers, 37 and pr_xluced 2,481 ions of pig ironrepre._.nting 27°3% of the s_tatetotal (C'apron: t3)_ The cou.r_ty's m_st pr(_tuctive Nrnace, Columbia Furnace, consumed 3,304 tons of ore, 2g0,(X/0 bushels of charcoN coaI, a_d 340 tons of lime to wod.u.ce 1,365 tons of pig iron valued at $30,(_}8. Columbia _.:urnace was water-powered, as was one other fltrnace, but the remaining two were steam.powered. A related industry was the forging of iron into more finished forms° Two early forges were Pine Forge, located on Smith Creek four miles north of Newmarket, and Union Forge, locaied at. the eastern end of the village of Lan_ Mills. In t860 the industrial census lists six foundries with a_nua_ _m_l_utin excess of $500. Most of these foundries eonverled pig iron imo bar i_rom but one, the VaI_ey iF'oun_'y (ff Solomon Moore & Company, manufactured "all kinds loll macbineKv." Like the Nrnaces, the early forges at1_racted.settlement (Waylaid.d, 1927: 241). Blacksmith shops operated thr(mghout the count,'side, and a iotal of __ine were listed for the coumy% u)_,_s in 1835 (MaNn: 450_-452). With the loss ofnorthern and Earopear_ iron suppliers during the Ci_,il War, the Conl:exteracy turned to Virginia's iron industry to supply plate, railroad rails, and oNer essem-ial articles. The Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond, one of the Sot_th's leading manufacturers, leased Caroline, Columbia. and Fort furnaces during the war (Bn_ce: 37t). Federal commanders were net tmaware of _e importaJace of the furnac_g to the Southern war effort, and most if nN all of the furrta_s were destroyed or disabled during the war. Other materials were mir_ed in Shenandoah County during the antebellum perk_. Manganese ore was recovered from several locations alo_.g the upper waters of Cedar (,reek beginning in the 1830s, and it is claimed that fl_ese were among the earliest mangane_ mines in the natior_ (M(._)re and Miller: 1.9). Small coal deposits were mined during the period, providing enough fuel to supply h)caI foundries and blacksmith shops (Rogers: 99; Mc_re and Miller: 22). A small k_d and silver mine was opened one mite southeast of Moore's Store in 1839, and reopened in 180 and again in t893 C_qne: t.81). Crucial to the agricultural coo.re)my of the county were the large grig mills and tlo_r mills that su_ along streams thr_mghout the centra| valley. The largest of these mills were multi-._o. W log or heavy frame bNIdings with massive stone foundati_ms^ Mills were targeted by Federal general Sheridan in his destructive campaign (ff t 864. but a number of mra_ a_.tebe.llum mills managed to sun, ire. Among these are tl_e I%restville Mill (85-- ), the Stoner Mill (85--83), the Spengler Mill (85--17), the Swartz Mill (85-80), an.d the Walum Mill (85_26). At the Stickley Farm (85-13) o_ Cedar Creek are the stone foundations of two mills dating to the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Both mills _ture _gmentaI- mad round-arched door and wheel-pit openings and other finely crafted m_sonry features. A mill of a dif_erem sort is the Morgan-Ri_ker Woolen Mill (85-502), located on Mill Creek just outrode Mr. Jackson. Through much of fl_eearly and mid-nineteenth century, the Morgan-Rinker mill was _ only woolen mill in operati{m in the county. The two_._ory _vy flame building features a limestone basement stoW with a fireplace, crane, and remnankg of a later tomau) 3_ F_ncrary Ti_eme The She_a_do_ County survey focused mainly or_architec_-uralresources; conscNuen@, mi_.fimal infi)rmation was gathered on the comUy's historic cemeteries. Also, what irfformatior_ that was gathereA is far from _,v,e.matic. Nevertheless, a .few generali_.ations mW be made co_cerning the county's early fimerary art and spatial planning. First, grave markers definitively dated to the eighteenth century" arc relativeIy rare. Probably most early markers were field,_ones or wo¢__lenplanks that were never inscribed or have had theh" inscriptions weathered away, Se_,'ond. most early cemeteries appear to be family pk)_, or plots used by several families living in a relatively small area, Some of these thmiIy plots are wal|ed, such as the large cemete W on the Pamler Farm near Hamburg (not surveyed). Ear.ly church cemeteries are iMrequenL mairdy because early chtn'ches are infrequent, As the number of dmrches increased with time, and as churches became more stable, church cemeteries also increased, ..A..n.,..e._.c.!!u_t_186{)2 _W-_r....(!.86 !.::!..8.6..,5.,}. More dared grave markers survive in the rural areas of Shenandoah County ti"om the late antebeth_m peri(rd than from preceding wrkvds. Several Ncmrs may account tbr this: irtcreasi_.g population stabilig_-.oless frequent out-.migration; increasing pop__tatior_numbers; the relatively younger age of later grave markers, hence a g_ater survivN rote: arid increasing l_ersonaI wealth accomI_nied by a desire for greater gentility in funerary pracIi.ces, _eading to the carving (ff target, more durable, and more elaborate inscribed markers. A notable headstone from the period is the Emily Bo(?)ner marker in the: cemetery, at Mourit Pleasant Lutheran Church (not surveyed) in the northern comer of the county. The Bonnet headstone features a winged cherub, a motif associated with New England grraves_ear_esof the eight_'.nth cen.tu_. The headstone is no longer dated owieg to spalling of the soft. sandstorte (mr (ff which it is made. More _'picat in tbrm but late in execxttion is the heads_ane of L. R. Zimmermam located i.r_the churchyard of Zion Lu,*lmranChurch r_ear Columbia Furnace (85-.440L The Zimmerman storm is dated 1842 and is carved in the ,_)-calted Georgian form wit_ a complex curved rap. Heads, ones fashior_ed out of white marble or other fine imported arid indigenous stone, and carvezl with weeping wi_Iows and other popular n.ineteen.th-cemury mo_iN, began to appear in ruraI areas by the end of the arttet__:l_umt_:riod. Two headstones i_. the Zirkle Cemete W near Forestvil_e bear Germart irtscripti(ms (Wine: 52). A _ of headstones in the cemeteu of Solom_-m'sChurch (85-113) bear star m<N_?sin their tympanums that may be Gern_n in inspiration. .[_spite the trend u)wards greater permanence, crude, k,_s duraNe grave markers were still used. A collection of (now undated) wooder_ markers that are probaNy typica! of the peri_l survive a.t the We_zel C.emetery near C(flumbia Furnace (85-404). These markers have bulbous headqike t(_s (or tympan-ums) fla_k.ed by smaller epaulet-like wojections, and may l_ modeled on the Georgiar_. gravestones of the eighteenth arid first half of the nineteent-h cer_t.uries. Fie_dstune markers apparently c_mtinued in use° 4I Several anonymous vernacular stone carvers operated in %e mo_mtainous sections of the county duri.g the mid-nineteenth century. A same carver in Fort Valley ca_ed small b_t elegant sandstone markcxs with floral and s_ar raofifs duririg the 1850s arid early 1860s _hat appear in tl_e Clem Cemete_* (85-452) arid the Mclrm_rf Cemetery (not s_rveyed), O.n the opposi_e side of the c(mn_, in the Biller CemeteLv south of Orkney Springs (85--413), a less accomplished but imagirtative stone carver produced a laeadstone _br EI.iiah E_tep, who die_Jin 18{_ or 1865. The Estep marker is fashioned out of a sandstone flagstone and features a delicate sawmo_h border around a crude inscription and. a feather (or _x)s.sibletree _fflife motif) scratched into o_e corner. Two an-usual cast-iron grave markers survive in the yards of St. James and St. John's churches at Hud_m Cro.ssr_d_. One marker is ide.r_tifiedas that of David H. Armentrom (I857-1858), the son of Na_haniel and Lucinda Armenlrout, Nathaniel Armentro_t Operated a foundry at Moores Store in the late t860s a_d 1870s and possibly earlier. It seems likely thai l_e had the marker made fbr ibis infant son at his own iros.works. }¥.._r.l..d.._.Bj_r_L_e._..W...e..r.!.a....W....a..r...!!..(.!..9..!2.-..1.NN Family cemeteries continued in t_se througA the early twentieth centuryin Shenandoah Count, but tkeir imt-uor_nce diminished compared to the increasing popularity of church cemeteries. By 1900, most rural churches were surro_mAed by even rows of marble and .granite head,ones and obelisks. Few if any of the county's rural church cemet_._ies incorporated advanced de.sign. concepts s_ch as the winding drives and walkways that were common in ttrbaa_cemeteries of the late nineteenth century. Most church cemeteries are fenced. 2the cemetery, of Columbia Furnace Union Church (85-403) is surrounded by an immen_ polygonal limestone wall that may have been built with the church in 1854, or that may date to the period of the earliest date,| intermen.ts shortly afte_ the Civil War° The county's inhabi 'tams experiment_ with new materials .vach as concrete for grave markers. In the cemete_' of Pam_os Evangelical Lmheran Church n_a" Wcu.-_dst_k (85-460) is a pressed metal marker fashkmed for the Rev. William Mo Kibter, who died in 1905. Sto_e carvers sign_ their work more olten during the period. A carver named Jordan who workt_l i_ marble and indigenous sandst(me produced markers for the Billet Cemetery (85-413) arid the Funkhouser Cemeteqf (85-424) near Orkney Sprir_gs in the 1860s and t870s. A carver named Alfin, operating am of Wc_)dstock during the 1870s and 1880s, creat_ marble obelisks and rec_ambent lamb markers for the Columbia Furimce Union Church cemete_, (85-403). E. Redfer_ also carved marble markers during the .period. A maker of wooden gave markers has been identifie_tl for Ne period. Coffin maker and undertaker Jonah C. I.xmas, who plied his trade in the Orkney Springs area from lhe 18_ls lhrough ti_e 1920s, made simple grave markers by sawing the corners off of an 8"-wide 30"-long plank and carving the initials of the deceased _m the front. (An example of a pointed w_mxle.n marker similar to the ones Lamas rome, although amy lacldng an inscripfi_m, sttn, iveg in a small 42 grave plo_ behind Bethany Church near Col_.mbia t;:_mace_) The Lonas wo_e_ markers were us_aI_y meam to serve only until the family of the deceased could save money .fbr a more perma_em memorial, but often they were _ever re.ptace_ (Lg_masimerview, see 85-4.14). Setttemen_ and Eth_ici_y Theme For the colonial and the Revolutionao, War periods, county enumerations of ti_ables were the _miy population s_atisfics collected in Shenandoah Coum.y. The first retahvety acct_rate data (m the coanty's impulafi(m was gathered in I783 as part. of a s_tatewide enumeration,. In that year, Shenandoah Cou_t}, reported 7,908 white inhabitants (95.8 %) and 347 black inhabitants (4.2 %). The firs_ national census in 17_.,R)reported a population of I0,510 per,runs, inch_di_g 512 s_aves-- representing 4..9% of the total--and 19 individuals classified as "free colored°" In 1790, She_.andoah Co_mty was tess lX_UlOUsfl_an its neigh_r 1o the north, Frederick County, which had a Ng_ulati(m of 19,681. Also, the numN.:r of slaves in Shenandoah County was absolutely arid proportionally far less _an in Frederick, where the slave tx_pulation o{_"4,250 amounted m 21.674 of the c(mnty t(mal.. In fact, Shenandoah County had fi:wer slaves than an}, county in the presem state win the exception of Washinpon Co_mty in tar S___uthwestVirginia. The l_._pulafi(mof the cou_t;v rose steadily through the firsi decades of the nineteenN cemury, reaching 19,750 in 1830. Daring the same period, the slave and free black N_p_flations rose at a faster rain than the over-.ail populafiom By t.830, _he s_ave population numbered 2A23, or 12.3% of the total population, and the _umber of free blacks had risen to 458. Although migyafion into Checo_mty had subsided by the 1780s, the opening of Kentucky and Tennessee m settlement after the Revo_utkmao_ War precipitate1 a massive movement of peoples through the area (Mitche_l: 57). The white, populaiion of the county remained pr_ominately German in ethnic origin. The German language and other aspects of Gerrpan culture persisted and even flourished in the county through the firg third of the nineteenth cer_tu__(Mitchet|: 106). Ethnic cobesio_ was en_nced by German--Ianguage _ewspapers such as the l/olkberiduer of New Market (Wust; 117). ,A_h .et!.u..m..A'_r_x| (L8.39::.!..g..g}.) The tbrmation of Page and Warren counties from sections of Shenandoah County during _e 1830s reduced the l_ta| population from t9,750 ir_ t830 to t.1,618 in I840, accordirtg to the federal census. Thereaft¢.,r the c_uniy"s N)putatior_ grew steadi|y and moderately,-_vaching 13_896 in 1860_ The slave population of the courtly also declined abruptly during the I830s, to 1.033 ir_dividuals in 1840. Some of this d_ii_e is attributable m Ne reduction in the cotmly area, yet Ne 1840 slave population represented a smaller Woportion (ff the total population than in 1830, a decli_e from 12.3 %.m 8o9%. Tt_e decline co_atinued fl_ough the antebel_um perk_; in 18(R), the slave popuhtio,}, repre:se._ted onty 5.4% of Ne tota_ N_putation, almost as low a proN_rtior_ as in 1790. The rea,mt_s fi_r the propo_.tionN rise in the Shenandoash Co_mty slave 43 outside Stragigurg (85-fi), a huge porticoed brick mansion that f_nc_ioned as the se_t of one of the county's largest landholdings during the antebellum perk_t, More typical of the rural Greek Reviv_ dwdliugs of the period is the Rinker-.Bowman House (85-430), a two-story ¢emer-- passage-.pIan house of weatherboarde.d frame co_s'|.mc_ion dating to aNmt 1840. The house features a two-tier gabled px_rticoand fi.rep|aces with simple _rabeated surmm_ds. Added to the roster of traditional construction techniques practiced in the county during the antebeIlum perky3, is a form of building that entails stocking dimm_sio_aI _wn _umt_r to form the walls of the house, Thre.e hours have been id.emifi.ed in the northern section of the county's central vatley that employ this unusual and seemingIy wa_e_hl co_sm,ction technique: the C(_)k House (85-384), the KeIier--Humphries House (85-.362L and the James W, SmoG{ House (85-484; not yet Surveyed). The Cook House, believed to date to around 1840, sta_d.s adjacent to tim site of a mid- and tate-nineteenth_centu_ ,"sawmill (Gilmer; Lake'.). W..or_ld...__W q_.tt..d..._.V...a...r...!L(.!9..[7:_Ug_4Xt Shenandoah County architecture is notable for the dazzling array of painting tex.:hniquesemployed in the decoration of i_,.sdomes_:ic interiors, Much of the finest painting dates to the second half" of the nineteenth cenmU, although notable examples smwive from before and after the pe.rir_ as well. Techniques ranged from the ubiquitotts graining aud marbling (the simuIation of wood grain and marble or. other s_)ue) to less common stone blocking (a subcategory of marbling), smoking {the use of a s_.._tyflame m make designs in fresh paint), stenciling (the use of a stencil u) create', reI_:.tifivedesigns), scenic painting (the depiction of landscapes or other figurai scenes), and ,romf._e! 'oieI (the simulation of three-dimensional detailing). Nearly all houses have some t:orn'_of interior painting, whether ifbe simple whitewashing of exposed log walls or exWavagant pelychromatic displays keyed to architectural elements. WaH--Npering survives primarily in late-- nineteenth- and early--twentieth-center • interiors. Several early three--r<mmGerman houses re{sin traces of original pain6ng. The massive fireplace lintel in the kuche of the E. F_e Ho_ (85--477) was painted a garish carmine .re_l. "['he du,ch doors of the DeHinger-Vett.er House (8548% are painted somber Mack and green; a dutch d<×}r in the Wagg(mer-Fo|tz House (85_482) is painted dark brow_ and green. An early example of stenciling survives in an upstairs hallway of Spengler Hall (85-9). The stenciling-.-.a mw of red urns linked by swagqike motifs----is in k_ping with the early-nineteenth-ce_m_' Federal styling of the house. Pe.rhaps the mo_ spectacular display of decorative palming in the county is to be found in Ves_.w Hall (85-73), a Greek Revival brick hoese of the mid-_ineteeNh cesium" with parlor walls and ceiiing paintext in trompe l'oieI m simNate motded plasterwork. Vesper Hal| allso preserves remnants of stone blocking in the s_irway to the attic. A contemporaneous house known as Green Hope (85-.124) features similar iron,pc I'oiel painting, ned the Ions{turn Harpine H(mse (85-429) of about 1870 fen{ureA b|_Idng in the center passage until a recent renovatiom ._n contrast to the ret_e:ment of Vesper Halt and Gree_ Hope are the interiors of more verna_zular _6 dweliir_.gs such as an aba__doned hour-, near _._banon Church {85-4-65), which has a downstairs room with an entire partition gsained in vivid brown and yellow, and _een a_d red steaciling on fl_eexposed ceiling joists. Another dramatic example is the mid.-ninetee.rtth-ce_uD' lames W. Smoot il:{ou_ (85-484; not- yet surveyed). Green, Nowm and cream paint was applied to the house's interior doors by a painter who used his hand and fi_.gers as his palm brash, creating paisleys and other retmtilive free-thrm figures. The Armentrout I-{ot_ (85_34) in M(_._resStore has a Federal mantel and ba_seboards with smoked fini_es _id to have been produced with taIlow candies. Litile is known abom the a_-tists who were resl._msible f0r the county's paime.d interiors. Evidence from oNer communities would k_dicate that much of the painting was the work of itinerams, alth_mgh the freq_.mncy of the paintirtg in Shenandoah County may wire m home- grown talent (Phillips: I56). One local artist lbr wgom there, is ample documentation is William F. Rupp, who emi_at_ to Ne United States from Germany in 1854 and later tived in Luray and possibly New Market. In I872 Rupp painted a fresco of "Bli_ad Justice" in the Shenandoah County Cottr_ouse. arid he is believed to have e.xec:ute_lthe parlor a_d hallways of Vesper Hail (Bauserman, 96-98; Painter, Sl_enaedoah Coun(y a_dI_s Courthouse: x). Rupp's work probably also s_._rvivesat Green Hope and (until recently) the Jonathan Harpine House° Contractor D. G. =Green" C_anahan, who built a lavish Quee.a Anne farmhouse, for himseif near Hamburg in 1900- 1902 (85--44I_, is betiev_t to have executed the dark brown knotty graining on the doors of the borise. Governmel_t/Lawt PotificM Theme tZew resources associated with tMs theme were identified by the survey. The virtual absence of suct_ resources is targely due to the rural character of the project area. Post offices, which may consider_ to beloag under this theme, are discussexl under the commerce theme due m the fact that mos_ were adjuncts of ge_,eral merct_andise stores during the nineteenth and early twemieth centuries. S(miai Theme Few resources a._sociated with this theme were idemified by ,he _rvey. T.he virtuM absence of such resources is largely due to the rural claaracter of the project area. General merchandise stores and _h(_Ih_mses probably provid_ meeting a_ace m fraternal and other organizations in most rura_ communities. Technology a_d Engineering Theme Property types associated witla this _eme--roads, bridges, railroads, etc.-are discussed under the trar_sportation _heme. 47 The New D_)minion: 19_6.._rese_ Shenandoa_ Co_.rw at the end of Ne twentieth century, remains a pr_ominately rural, area, win livestock and ponItD" production co_as_ituting the basis of the counV's a_iculmre, In fact. Shenandoah. Cotmty was t_e eighth largest turkey producir_g county in the nation ir_ ]9N0 (Virginia Division of Irtdustrial Devek_pment and Plarming). Fruit growirtg and shipping arc', imNma_t agribusinesses_ Most indus'tO' is located in the c(mmy's larger towns, with only a few large plants located in rural areas. The county's transportation n.eiwc_rk was transfommd ir_ I/an I960s wRJa the constn_c_'k._nof lnterstam 81, paralleling the route of the ei.gh{eerttla-cer_turyValley Road. Interstate 8_ has increased the amount of autornobile and track traffic Fassi.r_gthrough the co_mty, resulting in an economic N_.)st to existing communities and the formation of r_ew commercial n_Ktes at higI_way interchanges. Dewite the gradual laard-surf?acing of ,_ee(mdary roads. Shenand_h Coun_ t_as ma W _avel n_a_ts. In 1960, the county had 7,208 housing units (Virgir_ia Divisi(m of Ind_astrial Devdopmem and Planning). Since that time, adclitionN units." have been added, -primarily ir_ suburban neigl_borhoa_s es_abl.ishea°lon the peripheries of the larger tow_._s.Smaller subdivisions have been made in rural areas, mainly alo_tg .highway #omageso The one-story brick-cascxt ranch g(mse was the housing lbrm of choice during m_mh of the second l_aif of the cer_t.u.D'. 48 The Sheaa.r_doah Cotmty Historic I._ndmarks Survey resulted in the documentat.io_ of 364 resources located dispro_mionatety throughottt the county and representing a _mge of historic periods. As o_e might expect, the greate_ concemradon of reso_ces was in the cemral vallev, the largest and mos_ intensively settled physiographic section of the county, lie Ne valley are located the targe_ farm complexes, the earliest surviving bou_s, the fittest works of domestic architecture, and Ne majority of Ne county's rural commuaitie,s. Resource densities in the central va_tey are patterned.. Significant re,tortes are gro_aped _Iong lbe She,nand.o_h River and tributaries where the I_igj_est quality, farmla_d was _vailable, and they are %trod in greater mm_ber akmg ti_e Valley Road _txt i_r_ he vicinity of Ne major towns wt_re commercial and cultural oppommities existent, Most of the ma_y hundreds of NsuNc resources that were iderlfified t,_ut.not surveyed are Ioc_ied in the central valte3_. The der_sity of these reso_Irces contribu_.es m the historic charact_._ of"the central valley [andsczpe. Certain areas exhibit ar_. architectural and historic richr_ess, a high level of integrity, and a relative tack of modem intn_sions that may warrant considerado_ for the National Register after _rlditiona_ survey is conducteA, (Sex the recommendations section of tNs report for _ more detailed discussion of tt._eseareas.) The _-u_,_,edness,-,r,""of the terrain in the mountainous eastern and western se_ions of the co_ntv, and _:hegenerally poorer quaUty of the soils deterred seNement in those sections, resulting in smaller farms, fewer early both.sos,and a retative lack of rural commurfities. Although the eastern and western sections are s_parser _ba_ tlae central vNley in a q_antitative sen,so, those _c_i_.ms have the potential u_ preserve resources associated wi_ more tra.difio_aalmountai_._Iifew_,s that are less welt represented in the valley. The fa_ that much of the c(mn_iy's n_.ountain _and is located ir_.the George Washington Naticv_N Forest, which was excluded _Yom tlae survey, made the lack of resom'ces appear gre_ter than is traly the to.so. "["herequirements and metbodok_gy of Ne survey have resulted in a tem.N)rat distribution _ff surveyed resources tl_t probably diverges from the true distrib_Non of att his_ric resot_ces, For exa_Ie, the surv_, foc_ased_ resources tt_i appeared to a_mdate _he Civil War, with l_ess attention paid m late-_ineteen_- _nd ear.Iy-.tw_tiet_-cen_-tnLvresources, T_ese latter resot_rces probably far outnumber a_tebellnm re,tortes, owing to the younger age and hence s_atis_cal_y higher survival rate of tmstbe_lum resources a_d also m the fact that more resources were built after Ne Civil War. A_.other fact_)r _ffcx:ting Ne ob_rved disi_JbutJon (ff resm_rces is t_e inherent difficulty of dating vernacular resources that are surveyed at the reconnaissance le.,,,el, ar_.deven _me vernacular re._mrces t_t are surveb_ed at the irately,sire level. The absence of sty.listic features, the persistence of _les in rural areas_ the persistence of Iraditional consm_c_ion W_ctices (for example, hea_, timber frami.r_g of ban_s into the mid-_,entietb century.), N.e recycling of Nder _J_ric in more recent constructJom a_d the incorporation (ff older dweNngs into newer ones or _e Norough, ref_rbisbing of older dweili_.gs-.-Nl these, fa_:tors complicate _he dating _ff resources and can skew obs_.wveddistributions ir_unpredictable ways. With ibese quali_ing factor_ i_.mi_r_d,it is p_)ssible to r_ake some tentative s_xements concerr_ing 51. the temporal distributiot_ of historic resom:ces m the m_ral arenas of SI"te_t_d(_h C.oumy, Eighteenth--century resources appear to be rare, at_l_ough inter_sive architectural arid archival documet_tati(m of _temia]_yearly resources may raise the number of examples. S_Iistic evider_ce suggests mar_y m_re resources survive from the first quacter of the ninetee_ century, with a linear increase through the secured, third, a_tdtburt_ decades of the century. The increase i_. building a_ivig* after the Civil War--tge result of Ne dramatic expan.sion in agricultural prodt_ction a_.d the growth in the m_mber of fkrms during the period, couNed with a m_-_est rise in d_ecounty's populati.on-is the cause of the _served abundance (ff postbdlum resources. The first half' of the _'emieih cer_tury may have wime,ssext a slowing of the rate of incremse in resources (allhough the absoNte, n.ttmber of res(m_'es co_tdnued to grow) as development shifted from _he agriculturally-oriented countryside to the industrial and service-oriented major towns. This may account for the apparent equality in the number of late-nineteeath-cenmry and early- twentieth-cent'ary resources. The s_arvival rates of specific kin.ds of resources do rmt neces_rily obey the general trends outlir_ed above. More borises of the coumy's wealthier inhabi_a___ st_rvive from earlier periods than do the smaller a.r_dle_,; perma_rmntly constructed h(mses of less affluent inhabi'tartts. Relatively few barns remairt from the antebdlum pe,iod-a direct c_msequen.ce of Sheridan's barn-burning campaigr_ in 1864-but maw survive from the peri(_t of re.buitdi_.g t_at folioweA the war. Public schools, built in large _mmI_ersduring the late nirm_eenth and early twentieth centuries, have a poor sun_ival rate, the .result of consolidation in the secot_d quarter of Ne twentieth cev_turyand the subseque.mtaba_.donment of smaller sch.cu_lbuitdings or their conversion into dwellings. 52 ×. EV&.b%!A:_.r._ON Considering _t_ewealth of historic reso_arces in rural Shenando_ County, the resourc_._ that were _urveyed during this first relatively comprehensive survey efti._._rank among the most significant historic sites in the county. Many of these resourcc_ probably mee_-the criteria for listing i_3itm National Register of Historic Places and the Virginia Landmarks Register. However, given the i.r_herer_tlimitations of the survey; definite s_atemerm_ of eligibiiity can only be made for ir_dividual buildings and li_rms that have been investigated on the in_erior, and _l_at clearly represent a re,torte of outstanding historic or architectural me.xit. For mo_ of the t_hiriy-eighi resources documented at the intensive level, determinations of eligibility should wait until a fuller sample _ff potentially eligible sites is achievext. The _me holds true for most of the 326 reconnaissance sites, with the added stipulatior_ that a given resource be surveyed at the intensive level and that additional historic d._-_c__me___tationbe gathered. Naii.onai Register eligibility is determined by evaluating resources accon_ing to certain t:ederal guidelines. The "National Regisxer Criteria For Eval.uation _ are as follows: Criterion A: t_roperties that are ass_._iated with events that t_ave made a significant contribution t_) the t)_ad pai_erns of _mr hism_'. Criterion B: Protverties that are associated with the lives of I_'.rsons significant in our past. Criterion C: PrN_e._ftiesthat emlx_ly the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction or th_lt represe_.t a sigr_ificant arid distinguishabl.e enti V whose compo_.en_s may lack individual distinction. Crimrion D: Properties that have yielded, or may be likely m yield, i_rfformadon important m prehi_) W or histo U. _n addition to these criteria, a resource generally m_st be tifty_years or older at the time of evaluation, _d it mu_t tmssess integi_. There are also a _3_.mberof c(msiderations (or exceptions) m the above criteria that are di._:ussed more fi_lly i_3.National Register literature. For the puq_._ses of this report, the evaluation _ff resources is ba_d sNely on criterio_ C (see recommendatkms section below). Eligibility criteria t:orthe Virginia Landmarks Register do _ot differ substantially tTom the National Reg.is'ter criteria. A number of registraiion requiremer_ts must be _tisfied tot a given prol3e_3y to be degermined eligible _i_rthe NationN Register. Thesa_.requiremenis differ _br vari(ms pror_y types, but for pror_'rties being cor_sidereA for listir_g under criterion C--architectural significance--the requirements are relatively s_raight--forward. A_3architecturally e_igible property may be a_. outslanding local example of a particu 'tar style_ with s_phistica_ed or o_erwise notable massing, ptan arrangement, and exterior and interior detailing and .finishes. For example, a large brick h(mse dating to I820 with original N_rficos, a Wackms dot,.hie-pile center-passage plar_, arid. 53 investigatkm to be fully unders_. Only l-t_efirst sto._' w_s open to inspectio_ at the time of &e _ife vk_it. 3. Motmt Plea_n_- (85072) Constructal around 1.812by Lt. Isaac Bowman, son of the pioneer Ge_.rge Bowman, Mi. Pleasant is a large and sophisticated brick dwelli_.g. The interior of the house features elegant wo_Kiwork including original mantels, cupboards, flooring, doors, and locks. The proper W also f_atures an attached stone kitchen wing, a brick smokehouse, and several earty._20th-centuu farm buildings. Mt. Pleasant's refined architectural integrieq"is further enhanced by its pristine rural _tting. It is located abo_I 1/2 mile souN of I_aac Bowman's faNer's h(mse, l:;ort tN)wman, on a bluff overi(_)king Cedar Creek, The 2-story, 5-bay, symmetrica_ house features many interesting architectural details. The exterior of the building is laid in Flemish-b(md on the front and back and 5-course American bond on the sides_ The gable roof is clad in slate and has two interior end brick chinmeys. The house ix crowned by a woode_ cornice with modillions arid dentils. The double4._ung windows are crowned by su)ne lintels with keystones. Circular and semi-circular attic windows are fou.ad in.the gable end,,;. The fi'ortt of lhe hou_ features a I-bay pedimented portico with Tuscan column.s, The front door is a douNe 4-panel door and has a semi--circNar transom with w(×rden trace D"ab(_'e. To the east end of the h(mse is a I-story. 3-bay, attached, sto_.)e s_._mmerkitchen with an interior end _one chimney. "rNs appears m have been consmact_ at the __me lime as the main house. The entire interior of the house features fine Federal-style details. The entrance hall is in_eresting because the stairs Nee the back d_r, not the fror_t as would be expectcxt. The ho_._sehas a center--pa_sage, &ruble--pile plan. Midway down fl_e length of the center passage is a par_eled archway with a keysu)ne that is supported _ flu_ed pilasters. The wocvdwork throughout the house inch_des chairraiis, built-in cupboards, paneleal wainscots, paneled door and window re.veals, mantels with reedir_g, herringbone pat_ems ar_.dflutexl pilasters. The secortd..s_)ry NW room features two fir_earched niches with a keyst(me supt_rted by fluted cotmvms (similar _o _e archway in _e main halt). The mNority of _he 6--panel doors are still intact as are box locks a_.d some locks wi_ hand-forged e_:utcheom.'. The .prapeW i_cludes five contriNsting buildings inclt_ding: a brick meathouse (19th center3.*); a barn constr_.c_ed using the mortise and teflon teclmique (ca. 1900); a small 6-room ter_nt ho_ase(ca. 1930); a chicken coop; and various other 20th--centuD, frame farm ottthuildiags. The property also irtcludes a ncmcorm'ibuting brick garage that was _x:e_fly constructexl, 4. Spengler Hall (85-9) Spe_gierHall is a fine example of ar_early I9fl'_-ce_mry brick dwelting cons'tmcted ir__e Federal s_ty_e. Its interior F_teraPstyle details are highly _)phisticated and. i.aclude _nusual stencitir_g. The front portic() with its Nuat baseless Doric colunms was probabiy 56 added |ater i._ the nineteenth cen_xy. The two..story, five-bay brick ho,_se is }aid in Flemish bm_d o_ the _?ont and 5-course American bo_d on the sides and back° It features a central dc_rwith a t'aaiigh_ with w___denuace_ above on each flc_)r. Above the d(_rs there are ro_.ded brick arches. The windows are sine-over--nine-sash, double-hu,r_gs o_ the firs_tfl_)r and six-over-six double h_mgs on the _ond floor. "['hewindmvs have _hae brick jack arches _bove them. The wiridows all have louvered woodeg_shutters and the hou_ has iv,,()interior end brick chhnneys. The house has a rear brick eli that housed the kitchen arid servam:s quarters above, It is laid in 5-com'se American bo_d arid has a central brick chimney. There are two contlSbuting outbuildings: a brick t-._o_', 2-bay slave q_arters laid in 5-cot_rse American bor_] with an exterior end br_ck chimney a_)d a gable roof clad in woollen shingles; a_ a 1-sXoU, 1-bay brick meathouse witt__an interim" er_d brick fl_e and a gable roof clad i_ woode_ shingles. 5. Valhalla (85--.96) Valhalla was supix)se,_ly co, smutted in the |ate 18th ce._mU,. The woodwork in the house., particularly the fancy mantel in the parlor, is of the Federal s_le and may support such an early date. However, _e pro_n_y could have just as easily been constructed ig the early t9th centu U. It is um_suaI _cause the front., which faces river, has no en.trance except og the bmsemen_ level. The house is associated with the Biedler am_ Hockman families. The parlor is the most exceptional room in the house. It features built-in cabinets with flatpaneled d(g)rs, rended Doric cotunms as trim; an archway wigs a keystor_e; and ar_ urn-like motif with a pineapNe. The manM has re_.ed pi]tasters; hatching ir_the t_xanding;a central floralmotif and pineapples m the friea,xe, This is one of the most elaborate mantels the surveyor _s seen thus far in the survey. The other mantels in the house also feature rending, and at least two have a N)wed mantel shelf, The a_c of the. house was investigated a_d it appears that the front of the house was ir_ fact constructed __rsta_d tl_e rear ell added later. H_>ks were also fourtd ir_the attic that could have been used for hatching meat. The entra_me must have therefi_re eith_ been •fi:om the west side or one of the east side wir_dows was changed from a d(u)r, l _fimr_d m) evider_ce sup.lmrting this see(rod thea_ry utxm e.xamirtatim_ of the brickwork. The basement of the house is interesti_g and is made -up (ff two rooms. T_re are two batten d(._rs with a baned wo_en vent windows on each side. The house has had mveral additi(ms a._d aReratkms including c_osirtg in the side porches (1940s or 1950s}; a side I-stuB" wing ,.m a concrete block foundati_m; and sew windows. Outbuildings irtclude a fine brick summer kitcben with an i_nteriorend brick chimney; diamcmd-patte_, ve.r_ts; and a walk-_mt, s_._Iii-levelbasememt. It has a modem concrete block side wing. Not much is lefl of the old ban, except for a small t;rame supe.r'siructure using p_s of the old stone foundation. A m.(_em metal barr_ has beer_ buiR next to it. Across the road a_e the remains (ff the st_rin.ghouse which was destroyS, when the road was rerouted. 6. Vealmr Hall (85-73) 57 Consa'o.c_e.dar_mnd I865 for Elijah Pifer, Vesper HaI_ is a fine example of a mid-I9_h century brick dwelling with some early ¥ict_}rian architectural details. The exterior and i_.terior of the h_.3usear surNisingly intact. The front parlor features fine trompe l'_>aiI fresco painting _hat was Nobably executed by the painter William Rupp. Rupp painted in the area after the Civil War. His work included churches like M_. Hebron in MadiNm Courtly, the Shenandoah County courthouse in W(_:_stock, and seve_l priva{e residences including ones in Luray. The property has further significa;._ce because of the earlier log tin,ant house located, west of the main house_ This building may be art example of an early German-plan hour. Vesper Ha_l itself ix a 2-sto.U, 3-bay (symmetrical} brick buiNing laid in Flemish bond on the front and 5-course Americart tmnd on the sides and rear. It has two interi{_r brick chimneys and nits or_a raise.d stone ba_ment. It has a hipped standing ae.ammetal roof and the remnants of a widow's walk. The wi_dows are 6/6--sash douNe--hungs wi_h an elaborate window cap with a shell and fi_liated scroll motif. The front wir_.dows have louvered w{_)den shutters. The house is fionted by a three.-bay front p_rch with a hipped r(_ff, square support_ with _wr_ brackeLs and urnqike balusters. The house is crowned by a w_den cornice with fine brackets that match those fbund or_ the corrdce of the porch. The hou._ at_ ha,s a realr, 2-s_ear• wixig with an interior end brick chimney. Currently this part of the h_mse is reined as a _parate apamnent and access was denied. The fr_mt doorway of the house features a broken _ran._m ar_.dsidelights. The mair_,block of the house is in the shape of a _quare with a double_pde center-passage plan. ']{'heimerior _ff the house is highly unique and features fresco painting that was probably done by William Rupp during the last third of the 19th century. Many of the wails have {_.¢_ paid.ted over but the front east parlor retai.r_s its fresco paintings. Rupp's tmmpe Foeil technique is highly refitted and in this r_}m %atures panele.d walls, an acanthus cornice, and a circular arch in the ceiling with a centra_ medallion. The colors are shades of gray, tan and gold. The other surviving painting is found in the stairwell in the attic where the walls were block painted to l(._k like cue stone using gray and white paint with red for the mortar, l_obably other rooms in the house once featured decorative painting. The woodwork, i_. Vesper Ha_t appears to be original. There are mantels in eve.xy r_u}mtha_ are thirty plain with paneled friezes arid columns. Some have a Tudor-style arch.. There is _m_e evidence that some had originally been grainpainted. The w(_dwork is primarily fluted wiih plain corner bI(._cks. Ma_y of ihe paneled d_ra have bee_ grain painted. The s_airca_._eis slightly _,3_iraledar_.d has tum_ balusters. T_e rear of the house has a 2-stoD' wing with enclosed side N}rches. There are two nor_con_ri_mfi_goutbuildir_gs; a cor_crete block garage, and a frame shed. Another resource group surveyed at the imensive level du_tg the initial phase is the f(_ur_een crossr_._ds commu_ities a._ villages ofCalvaLv (85-_), CoIumbia Furnace (85-400), Conicville {85-402), ForestviHe (85-405), Hudson. Crossroads (85-410), Lebanon Church (85_118), Moore_ Store (85-37), Mount CIiNm (85-409), Mou_t Olive (85-504), Oranda (85-505), Quick*burg (85 - 407), Saumsville (85_503), Wheatfield (85-467}, and Witliamsville (g5_408). C_Sl)HR Prelimi.r_ry Infi_rmation Forms for the,._ communities appear as an appendix m this report°) This _mple repre_nts about half of the communities ear-marked fbr intensive sar_'ey_ and 58 incorporated communities have been _he subject of indivi&M survey and National Regis_er pmiects in the. past, bm Toms Bre4_k has rex. Survey of representative sites in Toms Br_x_k is warranted, as is a determia_km of what area or areas (ff the commtmRy may be eligiNe for the Natk)nal Register. The initial survey w_._rkrevealed areas that appear to be eligible as rural Nationa_ Regqate.r historic districts. The area extending from Columbia Furnace to Mo_mt ()live features many _istoric villages and intact farm comple×es .set in an agrkul.tural langscape that has _men less altered by m{×lern developmem thar_ other his_.ork areas in the county. The. Jerome V_ley irt the cmmD"s wesu.._ mountains may be. another area with National Register p_)te._tial. An area of recognized historic a_.dprel_istoric archaeological potential as well as architectural significance centers on Meems Bo_)m south of Me,ant Jacksom This area features Native Mrmrican village sims_ the site. of a Civil War engagement and pri_ner of war homing pen, and buildings and structures such as Meem's Covered Bridge (already listed in the National Register), the extensive Mr. Ai_' Farm, the impressive rums of the I_alianate mansion ol: Strathmoore, the tx_ssibty German_plan Rude Hou.va, a tol_ ho-useassociated wi_ the Valley Tttrnpike, and other resources° Undoubtedly more pa)tential rural historic distJ:icts will come to light with further survey work. Additkmal survey should be accompanied by additional research. This report provides a basic discussio_ of several of the prominer_t themes in the county's history, alth(mgh the cor_clusions of tl_e report art: r_ecessarity tentative owing m the prdimiwary nature, of"the mrvey. As a larger sample of resources is surveyed, and as more specific areas of research are suggested_ fiamre generations of this report vdll contai_ a more thorough account of the archi.tecmral developmem of the counD'. Another pressing research need is the integration of the findings of survey projects outside of state-sponmred surv W with the data base gc_era_ed by the current round of survey. The surv W work of t_e Shenartdo_ Coun w Historical Socie.W-.-sp_z_fically the photographic documentation of the county's oldest resottrces carried out by historiar_ Fred Painter in the 1950s. 1960s, ar)d 1970s---needs to be inmgrated with the pre_nt work, as does the mass of documenmti(m generated by the Works _'ogress Administration during the 1930s a_xl early 1940s. O_her, less architecturaIly--oriemed sources need m be examkted, one example being _he Virginia Board of Public Works papers at the V_rginia State Library° These pawrs sometimes coritain detailed field notes and sketch maps of bNIdings and villages located along early_._iueteenth- century turnpike and canal r_mtes. Another potentially helpful source is county school records. In researching Conicville as part (ff the imtial smwey prqiect, a Conicvil{le Elementary Sehoo| social studies unit dating to the I930s was uncovered that contains valuable information (including oral accounk_) (m the Ns_()ry of the commumty (Lutz). A search of school records may turn up similar projects fbr other communities. Future work, after add,itiona_ _rvey and re.search has been completed, may i.r_ctudean assessmem of She_,andoah County's archae_alogical potemial accompar_ied l_ylimit_ investigNion of selected sites° The historic 'landrt_rks s_arveyhas dealt with the co,tory's most recent hislory, extending back a mere two centuries. In actuality, human activi_ in the county e.x.ter_dsback 12JX)0 years 61 m the end of the last lee Age. An archaeological assessmem w_mtd shed more light on this httlte understo_ but important perked of the com_g_'s history, and would ide_i_fv the types and d.i_ribution of be_ow-gm_md resot_rces associated with that history° Mchaeology can "alsoi_tcrease our unde_stand.ing of _e county's more recent histoW and in so doing supplmne_l analysis bas_ on archival _}t_c_._a,_d architeentral resources. For example, the coun.W's ninete_mth_cen.tuD" iron. irtdusW was a maior component of the loc.ai ecouomy, and it figured prominently in the'.ind_striaI history of the s_ate alid the Confederacy. The parameters of the county's thrnace sites, support communities, and resource k)cales (ore banks, charcoal pits, etc.) are at present poorly unders, ood, as is the social stm.clure and daily life of the furnace work forces. Archaeology can he_p in documenting the physical infratstructure of the eoun_"s iron industry, and it can. bring to light _he materi-d culture of ttze men a_d women whose lives were intertwined win the industry. Historic sites t_sualty have an archaeoIogical comp(}lx:nt, bdow.-gr_mrid remains associamd with the cons_ruc6{m and use of above.-g.r(mnd sm-_.cmres. Archaeologica{ investigation carl help support the bAs_oricsignificance of a given property by revealing tt}e full spectrum of the property's material remains. However, in the c_mtext of N_ure historic ,_rvey w_._rkin Shenandoa)_ County, archaeology should be useal.iudiciousty m determine the re.search poterifiai and integiity of selectexl sites. Exte_._siveresting and e.acavation would probably st_'air_the budget of any survey project. Aeotber rationale .tbr a caufi_ms approach to archaeology is the Net fl_at intrusive archaeological inve_iigat_on act)J.ally destrWs some data in the process of saNaging informati(m. Archaeologica_ theory and practice are. constantly improving; in ll_e future, archaeologisg will be able m retrieve mort: dala *_roma site than at present. With this in mind, archaeologicaltesang and excavation are best jttsti_ied when a site is in imminem dan.get of destn_cdon from deveit__nner_tor r_amrat processes. "l"l_efindings of the survey can be ttsed in a mm_.ber {ff ways m _b_er greater p_blic and governmental awareness of and appreciath.m for the county',_ irreplaceable hi_oric houses, farms, comm_mRies, and landscapes.. St_rvey pro iects in o_l_e.rcommunities have ted m Ne creation of work units and audio/visual units on local history and architecture }br use with scho_bag_ chitdren. '/'he,_. unit_s might be upgraded versions of the scripted slide program that was produteri as part of the survey project. The business community should be made aware of Ne rehabilitation tax credit that is available f_}r National Register properties and districts, the enl_anced tom'ism potential of areas that are perceived m be historic, and Ne enhanced markelabili_ of laistoric real e.sta_e. The survey shou|d be e,sed to inform p"lanning decisioris a.s a comporm_.t of the county's comprehe_,sive plan. His_ric resources contribute to tim quaI W of life. in a eommunit3', and it is in the public interest to safeguard Sl'tenand(mh Coung,'s heritage. 62 ×L B!..B.L!_ Andrio_. John L.. ed. Populagion Abs, rac_s q/"#_.e Un#ed Saa_es. McL.eam Va.: Andrio, Asaociate.s, 1983/ Bailyn, Bernard, and. DeWolfe, Barbara. _4"_yager_to the West. New York_ N..Y.: Vintage B_}k.s, 1986. Baker, Donna. "Built for survival." (Woodstock, Va.)Shenandoah Valley-tteraM. n.d. Bauser.mam Garw "William Rupp, Fresco Arr.a_to:' Page, The CowlrV of Plenty. I.,uray, Va." Page Cornty Heritage Associafiom " Beyer, l!_ward. AhSumtf Virginia,"or Illustration of the Old Dominion. Berlin and Drench: • 1858 (Virginia State L_bvaU reprint, 1980). Bland, Sidney. °_IronWorkiag Industry Has Long Valley History; Governor S_ottsw(×_t _'Early SponSor. (Harrisonburg, Va.) Daily Ne_vaRec_rdo Octo_oer t4, 1967." Borden, Drone Lvle. Tombstone Inscriptions: 7"on_vBroo&, and Vidni, v, Shenan&mh County, Virg#,ia. "Ozark, Mo.: Yates Publishing Co., 1981. ' Tombstone Inscrip&)ns: Strasbure, ,and Vicinity, Shenandoah County, Virginia, Ozark, Mo.: Yates Publishing Co., 1[-982. Tocr#_seemelmcriptions: WOedsto&, and t,7cini_v, ShenwMtnxhCounty, Virginia, O_ark, Moo: Yates Dablislaing Co., 1983. _ " 7?)mbs_on#lm'c_ptiom': Woods'_ock,and Fort Valley Vicinities, Shenandoce&Count', ...................Virginia. Ozark, Mo.: Yates Pub|isNng Co., 1983. Tombstone Imcr!p_ions: New Market, Mr. Jackwn, and Edin#urg I_dnities, -ghenandoah Coumy, girg_niao O_.ark, Mo.: Yates Pttblishiag Co., 1984. 7bmbsmne lnscriptians: Shenandoah and Page Coun#es, Virginia. Ozark, No." Yates ..................TJiJbiishing Co., 1984. . Tombstone I_.wril_iom.: Shenandoah County, Virginia and Bordef_gngCounties, 77rederick..gocl_'nehdm-.Warren-Faueuier-Rappi_hann¢._'_aM Hardy Co_(y, Wesg Virginia, Ozark, "Mo.: Yates Publishing C'.o._ 1986. Boyd, Andrew. Vi_jnia State Business Direcgorv, .1871-72, Riclam_md. Va.: Andrew Boyd & Co., 18710 Bruce. Kathleen. Virginia Iron ManuNc_ure in the Sl,_ve Era. New York. NY." The "C'entu_Company,1930. " tlrunk, Harry A. A History of Mennonites in I,Trginia. VoI. 1, Staunton, Vao McCture Printing Co., I959. Bryce. Paul B. The El_smcy of Bryce R_ort and Back_eund of Ne I2nwelopment of Bwce's ' Mo_.main Resort 1905 to 1.993." Typescript, I993. "Bryce's Hillside Cottages. _ Br<xzlaare,ca. 1910. 63 .lohr_ston, Angus ?ames_ II]. _rginia Railr(g_ds in the Civil Watt Chapel HilI_ NoC.: "[heUniversi_ of Nor'abCea'olina Press, 196 I. ,h)rdam Tc.v'rvG.. and Kaups, MattL The American BacA.wood_t:'rcm_ier:An Eth_ffcand Ecolc;gk:ai Imerpreta_ion. Baltimore, Md.: The J(:,hr_sHopkins U_iversity Press, 1989. Kalbia_., Maral S. Rural Lamlmarks Survey Report q[ Frederick C))un_,oVirginia° Wi_chester. Va.: Wi_chester-.Frederick County"Historical Society, 1992. " Keister, E. E. Strasburg, l{rginia and the Keisler Family. Strasburg, Va.: Shenancto'ah Publishing House, Inc., 197Z Kelley, Pierson. 2Cg))'ears in the Shenandoah I,_le_,', The Settlers and Their Pine (2.huoh, W_th Records Made By Pa.uI ttenI_.eLHarris(tabu/g, Va.: Park View Press, 1973. Kerct_eval, Samuel A [-Iis_o_"of _he Val&v of Virginia. 1st ed.. Harrisonburg, Va.: C.J. Carrier Company, 1833. Kle.ese, Richard B. She_andoah County in _he Civil War: The lUrbulent Years. Lynchburg, Va.: H. E. Howard_ Inc., I992. I.,ake, D. J. & Co. Hammond's Edition of the Atlas of Shenandoah & Page Counties, Virginia. • Strasburg, Va_: GP Hammond tNblishing, I_).1 (reprint of t885 a_las)o Lemon, James T..,"Ti_e A.gric_flmral Practices of Natiortal O.r_mps in Eighteenth-CenturySoutheas_tem Pera_sylvaniao The Geographical Review, v. 56 _. 4 (October. I9_i)" 467--496. Lirtk, Wi]tliam A. A Hard C'ourttr_,and a L_ne_ Place: Schooling, Socie_', and Reform N Rural le?Z_inia,1870-1920. Chapel Hill, N.C.: The University of North Carolina Press, 1986. Lor_g, Amos. Jr. "I'_ Pen_tsylvania Gernuan Family Farm." The Pem_sylvania German Society, v. 6 (I972)o L_)th, CaMer. _/he Virginia Lar_ru_rk_ Register. Charlottesville, Va.: The University Press of Virginia, I986. Lutz, R_y, ed. "(kmkwil|e Histo_ PrqiecL" Conicville, Va.: I933. Magjn, Irvin D. S!_enandoa)_County Gazetteer and t-lisw_gcal Geography. Stephens Cib', Va.:Comm_wciaI Press, Ir_c., I991. Martin. Jose_h. A New and Comprehensive Gazetteer of Virginia. Charlottesville, Va. JosephMartin,1835. Ma_._in,Robert I-{t_ghes.A Boy of Old Sheru_ndaah. Parsons, W.Va.: McClain Printing Company, I977 (t)t_blication of c_o 1928 mamt._ript). Mathers, [xmise O._rri_. Edinburg, _i_rginia:A Thrice Named Town in a Thrice N_med Cou_. . "7"3 McCIeary, Ann. _Augusta (kmntv Sch_s Selected For State's First Thematic No.migration." Notes on V_rggma.No. 26, Spring 1985: ,_6-33. • "Ethrtic I_ftnences on the Vernacular ArcNtecture in the Shenandoah Valley. °: 66 Paper preser_te.dto _e {'uR-ura_I)iver_i_v o_ the Virginia Frontier co_fere_ce_ EmoD, & He_].ryCoilege, Virginia, Ck:tSber tO. t992. • E_atua, ion of Archiwctur_[, .H_sgortc,and Archaeological Resources _n Augusta Ubumy.. l/irgin#J[ Richm{md, Va.: Vixgi_ia Diviskm of ;_.s_ric Landmarks, 1985. ,. Evatt_ag#mqf'ArcMtectural, ttisgor_c, and Archaeological Reslonrces in R6_'k#_ghwn Cbumy, Virgini/). Richmond, Va.: Virginia Divisior_ of Histori,. Landmarks, 198L McGill, William M. Caverns o/"Virginia. Richmon& Va.: State Commission on CoB_.rvati.on arid Development, 1933. Mem_g, E. W. The St_ing of Americ,_, A Ge:ograpltical Perspeclive on 5(K) Years ¢.gHistor_, _/2&_meI, a#armc America, I492-I8(_'_. New Haven, Cn.: Yale Umvers_ty Press, I :)86. Mercer. He_v C. 771eBible in Iron. Doylestown, Pa.: The B_cks Com}gv Historical Society, t94I. " Milter. C. O. "An Outline of the ]_tisto_[ of the Town of New MarkeI arid Vicinity." (Manuscript in the Shenandoah Coung Libra,, Edinburg, Va.) Mitcgel]: Robert D. Co_-ru.,rcialismand Frontier."Pe_pectives on _he.t,;art_."Shemmdoah _,_diev. (.harlottesville, Va.: Universiff Press of Vir_nia, 1977. " Moore. James T.. and Miller, Marguerite. Shen_m&mh Coune,, Geography Supplement, Veoodstock, Va.: Shenando_h County School Board, i93I. " "Moores Store Village, in the Heart of the She,_doab VaItW.'' Brochure, mdI. Mordecai. Samuel_ ()escription of ghe A&um of Vhginia: or T&'_Old Dominion, Ilgusgrated° Richmor_d, ¥ a.: Virgi_fia State Library, 1980 (reprint of 1857 pamphlet that accompardecd Edward N:yer's Album of Virginia). _ Newlor_, Howard. Jr., ared Pawlet_, Natkaniel Mavm. Ba(.&ights. Richmond, Va.: Virginia Deparmmnt of tatig_t_ways arid Transportatior_, I985. "New Market Battlefield His{.of_calPark, Visitor Information.." N{_hme, n.d. Nonis, J.E. Hiaro_ o..¢zheLower Shenandoah Val_e_,Coun&,s of Frederick, Berkel_', Jgff_rson, aml Clark. Chicago, II.: A. Warner & Corhpa-ay INblishers. 1890. O'DetL Jeff M., ext. E_hnic .91fluem:esand Aceuln,ration in die I&h and Lg_h Centuries a_td _711agesand Popular BuiMing Forms in the .l.9_hand Early 20_h Centuries. Richmo_d, Va. :Divisior_ of Historic La/_dmarks, 1988 (guide to the 1988 Annual Meeting of the Vernacular Archite.zmre Forum). The (.._cial Aglaa ojd_e Ci_ql War. New York, N.Y_: Thomas" Yosekfff, 1958. Painter, Fred P. The Atr_ House of Shem_ndoah Cou_{y: A Brief History by Fred P. Painter. St_._hens City, ¥a.: Comme:rcial I_ess, lnc., i9,9. "..... • ,%_'namhm_,Count_,and lg_Courthouse: A Histo_ hy Fred P. Pai_uer. Stephens Cig, ....... Vgt,: Commercial Pre.ss, lnc., 1979. Peters, Margaret T., comp. A Guidebook to Virginia %"HL_toricaIMarkers° Cl_arlottesville, Va.: 67 3/he University Press of Virginia, 1985. Phillips, I..a_ra A. W. "Grand Illusions: Decorative Interior Painting i.a North Carolina." C'arter, Thomas, and Herman, Bernard L., ed.s. Per:.7>ec_ivesm Vernacuh_rArchige¢._are, I_/. Columbia, Mo. : Uaiversi D' of Missouri Press, 199I. Revnolds. Margaret Co "Assimilati_m and Accutmratio_ ia a Pena_|v'maia German Fami|y: " NMe_,, Family and i_s Architecture in the Swatara Creek Basin. Penn._.h,a**ia Folkl!.(G v. 42 n. 3 (Spring 1993): 98-I20. Rice, A. H., and Sto_dt, John Baer. 7he Shenandoah Potre_. Streasburg, Vao: Shenandoah Publishing Hour, I_c., 1929. Rogers, Wiiliam Barton. G.eo_ogyqfthe Virginf¢_. New York, N. g " Do Appleton & Company, •I884 (reprint of Rogers's _ard of Public Works regwts o} the lg30s). Shult, Marie. Horsefeathers. Dabanon Church. Va. 1987. Smith. Elmer !;_ewis;Stewart, John G.; and Kyger. Mo Etlsworth.. 7he Pennaylvg_ia Germar_" of the Shenandoah Valley. A[1.eatown, Pa.: Schlechters, I964. Stevens, William Oliver. She Shenand(u_ wM Ias By.win,s. New York, NoY.: D_skd, Mead, and Co., 1941,. Sw.warl, Nancy Brar_mr. Schools in New Mad<el, Shenandoah Coumy, Virginia, VoL .t: 1766.. 1870. i_!dinburg, Va.: Shenandoah Coun_* Library, 1992. Stover, John F. The Pcdlro_Msof the SouN, 1865-1._09, Chapel Hill, N.C." The University I_ress of North Ca_'olina, 1955. Strickler, Ha_y M. A Short iqisto_ qfPage Count},, girgNia. Berryw-iRe, Va." Virginia B<u}k Co., 1.952. Strother, David Hunter..Porte. Crayon Sampler. Richwoc_t, W.V.: Jim Co_r_vaock, 1974. • gir.ginia IHustra,ed... New York, N.Y.: Harper Brothers, Publishers, 1857. Suter_ Scou H. "Evidence of Continuity and Change in 'I'ge BuiR Eaviromnent of Math.Ie Valley, • Virginia°" Barber. Michae.J B., and Bax'fiefd, Eugene Bo Upland Archaeology in she Eca_'t: Symposium I_; At|aftra, (>a.: USDA Forest Service, S{mthera Region, I9t)3. The TruN Crusader, Hambttrg, Va.: n.d. United States Census. Agric_aIture, indt_stry, and population .schedu|es, 1790 to 1940. [Nited States Dece_micd Census .Pubh'ca&mso .1790.1970. Washington DoC.: Governmer_t P,_nt-ing Office° United States Dc_nt of Agriculmreo Soil C_mservation Service. Soil Surv_. o.¢She_uwdoo3_ Coum):, _?rginia. 199 I. Vaugha?.48E. Dean. The Orkney Spri_gs of Shenandoah, New York. N.Y.: Carlton Press, Inc., Virginia Division of lr_ustria| Devetopmem and Ptmmi_g. Economdc Data, Shenandoah Cemnty, 68 Appendix A: Numerical Inventory List 095-o@9-000 Spe_i_rlaD. Str_sb'._g• 4 ( ; 085-.0013-000 5tiekle_"t a_ _lQ_ileto_. D_niei$tickl_y _az_ 085_016-¢_)0 Sandytook _att _attle_nt Strasbtk_g 015-0011-@0 It, Airy 1_6 la_ket 085-0022- ¢la_6_a_ f'a_ ¢onicvflle OS_-O0);;- _oore_Stor_ Ti_t_vill_. oi5-0o58-{_00 fk/s _o_ tidIleto_ 085-0060-_0 lo_tzteresa li_l_.to_ 085-(._]62-000 imetm-Coffelt_'a_ _m_ntainFalls 08f:@64-000 OldLindamood!iace Nount_.iaPalls sticgle L f;a_it _a_m 015-0'0:;0-(¢_ Gr._,_Io_atai,[iar_ lid41eto_ 085-0_}72-000It.Ple_a_t lid.dleto_ _o_tlle_amt [ 0_5-0078-000 Britt_l@alf'iace-l_MPaa _taM _-alis 015-0_Y1'9-13_0E_es Far_. To_ Irook _o¢_taimliver _'a_ 085-0087-_XK} B_rbFarm I'o__Coak OI5-OO%-I_lO Va11_all,_l_r_ To_I Broek mialler _o_s_ 055_97- le1_ley Fai_ _dinb_q 0#!_'_98-000 Littl_ _i.'_'*rF,_m _o_s_ook 085-010¢- lee_ io_e _e_latket 71 085-0i15_Yj0 _m.:_o_er_:arm. 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