Physical Activity & Education's Impact on Academic Achievement: National Study, Lecture notes of Physical Education and Motor Learning

Download Physical Activity & Education's Impact on Academic Achievement: National Study and more Lecture notes Physical Education and Motor Learning in PDF only on Docsity! The Importance of Physical Activity and Physical Education in the Prediction of Academic Achievement Tara A. Stevens, Yen To, Sarah J. Stevenson, & Marc R. Lochbaum Texas Tech University The purpose of the present investigation was to determine the independent contribu- tions of physical activity not associated with structured physical education and school based physical education participation to academic achievement in children. Prior aca- demic achievement and socioeconomic status were also examined Elementary school par- ticipants were selected from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten data- base. Structural equation models were constructed for both mathematics (boys, n = 3,226; girls, n = 3,256) and reading achievement (boys, n = 3,167; girls, n = 3,226). Physical activity was significantly and positively related to both mathematics and reading achieve- ment in boys and girls. Physical education participation was not significantly related to achievement. Socioeconomic status accounted for approximately 26% of the physical activ- ity. Future longitudinal research is discussed that incorporates more comprehensive physi- cal activity and achievement variables. Address Correspondence To: Marc Lochbaum, Ph.D., Department of Health, Exercise and Sport Sciences, Texas Tech University, MS 3011, Lubbock, TX 79409-3011, E-mail: marc.lochbaum@ttu.edu 368 Physical Activity and Achievement... /369 Young children are leading increasingly sedentary lives, with physical activity frequently displaced by television viewing, Internet surfing, and video gaming (Myers, Strikmiller, Webber, & Berenson, 1996). Much concern has surfaced for this lifestyle change as childhood obesity has risen greatly in the last 10 years (World Health Organization, 2000). Within the school context, incorporating physical activity or fitness training is a likely means to improve the physical health status of children (Haskell, 1994) as well as cognitive performance (Sibley & Etnier, 2003) and attention and concentration (Hillman, Castelli, & Buck, 2005; Shephard, 1996; Taras, 2005). Unfortunately, American public school administrators have been decreasing the time allowed for physical education in order to devote more time to the direct instruction of core subject areas (Coe, Pivamik, Womack, Reeves, & Malina, 2006; Shephard, 1997). In addi- tion, physical education classes are not always centered on physical activity that involves everyone (Block & Burke, 1999). Last, researchers have even suggested that physical educa- tion classes do not provide students with an environment to which vigorous prolonged physi- cal activity is possible (Crews, Lochbaum, & Landers, 2004). Researchers have demonstrated that physical activity is related to improved cognitive performance, and at least two avenues for physical activity in young children (free play and directed play or physical education) appear especially important. The investigation of whether physical education, as it is currently and typically implemented in schools, is as important as vigorous physical activity in the prediction of academic achievement can provide valuable information to school administrators. Hence, the purpose of this study was to evaluate a structural equation model with physical activity and physical education as separate variables to young children's academic achievement while accounting for the effects of socioeconomic status (SES) and prior achievement. The Relationship between Physical Activity and Academic Achievement Due to interest in the establishment of a relationship between physical activity and academic achievement, reviews have been conducted to attempt to evaluate the overall effects reported across studies (e.g., Sibley & Etnier, 2003; Taras, 2005). Sibley and Etnier conducted a meta-analysis to examine the effects of physical activity upon several measures of cognitive functioning in school aged youth. Their findings demonstrated an overall significant effect size of .32, The size of the effect was moderated by several variables such as publication status (published greater than unpublished), participant age (middle school largest ES), and cogni- tive assessment (perceptual skills largest effect size). In a qualitative review. Taras evaluated 14 research articles published since 1984 that addressed the relationship between physical activity and or physical education and student performance. Taras concluded that some evi- dence exits supporting an association between acute physical activity and improved concen- 372/Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol. 31. No. 4 This investigation adds to the extant literature by utilizing a large national longitudinal data- base that allows for examination of the effects of SES and prior academic achievement both of which are important contributors to standardized test scores. Although Coe et al. and Grissom also analyzed longitudinal data, their data collection spanned only one school year and fo- cused on children in either several schools or in a single state. The data utilized in the present study were collected over the course of the participants' elementary school years. Also by using a national database, we were able to assess the time that children spent in physical education across the nation, which lends to the generalizability of results. The present study further extends the literature base by including both prior academic achievement and SES in the investigation. Prior academic achievement must be taken into account given the obvious impact on future achievement. SES must be taken into account for several reasons. For example, children growing up in families with low socioeconomic back- grounds are more likely to iive in dangerous locations, without the benefit of parks and play- grounds for safe, outdoor play (Evans & Kantrowitz, 2002; Sherman. 1994; Townsend, 1979). Young children of higher SES backgrounds have advanced motor development in comparison to those of lower SES backgrounds because of the advantages afforded by outdoor play and formal involvement in team and individual sports (Frost, Wortham, & Reifel, 2005). Coe et al. failed to include prior academic achievement and SES in their study. Grissom included SES but omitted a measure of prior academic achievement. Also, Grissom only studied the influence of physical fitness on academic achievement and did not assess children's participation In physi- cal education. Therefore, the investigation of the relationship between physical activity and academic achievement as well as physical education and academic achievement is strength- ened by our use of a national longitudinal database that includes participant data for the elementary school years, the inclusion of important variables that are known to account for much of the variance in academic achievement, and the inclusion of both physical activity and physical education in the study. To examine our purpose, a structural equation model positing direct relationships be- tween physical activity and achievement as well as physical education and achievement was tested separately for boys and girls. Separate analyses were conducted for girls and boys because of the interaction by gender found by Grissom (2005). In addition, the model included prior achievement as a predictor of present achievement, with SES as a predictor of prior achievement. SES was measured during kindergarten and first grade due to the powerful effects of parent education, income, and status that occurs early when development is quite rapid and especially dependent upon family variables. Prior achievement was assessed during the students' first grade school year and present achievement was evaluated using both third and fifth grade data. Physical education was measured durbg the kindergarten, fyst and third Physical Activity and Achievement... /373 grade school years, whereas physical activity was assessed during the third grade. Thus, the latent variables represented the constructs at various points in time. Therefore, we hypoth- esized that even when SES and early achievement are considered, present achievement could still be inHuenced hy the cumulative effects of either or both physical education and physical activity. By evaluating our hypothesis in a structural model, we were able to simultaneously test all of the relationships (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001), which is an improvement over the regression analyses utilized by prior researchers that only allowed the evaluation of one dependent variable. Method Participants Participants were children selected from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kin- dergarten (ECLS-K) database (NCES, 2002). The ECLS-K is a collaborative project involving the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and the U.S. Department of Education. This project has involved ongoing assessment of 22,000 chil- dren and families attending more than 1,200 public and private schools. The purpose ofthis project is to provide data to assist in the investigation of school readiness, elementary school transitions, relationships between the kindergarten experience and subsequent school perfor- mance, and growth in cognitive and non-cognitive domains. Data have been collected from parents, teachers, schools, and children themselves. The ECLS-K sample was designed to be nationally representative of kindergartners who began school during the 1998-99 school cal- endar years. The most recent publication of ECLS-K data included data collection points at kinder- garten (fall and spring semesters), first grade (fall and spring semesters), third grade (spring semester), and fifth grade (spring semester). Because we were interested in fifth grade aca- demic achievement in the context of the students' earlier physical activity, physical education, academic achievement and SES, participants included in the present study were those with data points from kindergarten through their fifth grade school year. This sample was then split by sex. Due to attrition over the five years of the study as well as the presence of missing data, the sample of girls included 3,256 participants for the mathematics achievement analysis and 3,226 for the reading achievement analysis. The sample of boys included 3,226 participants for the mathematics achievement analysis and 3,167 for the reading achievement analysis. Measures • Socioeconomic Status. The latent construct of socioeconomic status was assessed using a composite variable collected during the fall of the children's kindergarten school year. 374/Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol. 31. No. 4 again during spring of the kindergarten school year, and again during the spring of the third grade school year. The variable provided a continuous socioeconomic scale based on parent reports of income, education level, and prestige scores for the parents' occupations. Utilizing the same variable assessed across time allowed for a latent variable representing children's socioeconomic status during their early school years rather than at a single point in time. Physical Activity. The latent construct of physical activity was assessed using three variables that were collected during the participants' third grade school year. The first item asked that parents rate their child's frequency of aerobic activity on a consistent basis in comparison to other children the same age. Parents were provided with the following definition of aerobic activity: aerobic exercise is exercise that makes the heart work very hard and makes people break out in a sweat and given the options of "More than other boys/girls," "Less than other boys/girls," "About the same as other boys/girls." Numerical values origi- nally assigned to these responses were recoded so that a higher number (3) indicated more aerobic activity and a lower number (I) indicated less aerobic activity. The second item con- tributing to the latent construct of physical activity asked parents, "In a typical week, on how many days does your child get exercise that causes rapid breathing, perspiration, and rapid heartbeat for 20 continuous minutes or more?" Responses were coded using a scale of 1 to 7. Finally, parents were asked if their child was engaged in regular exercise through sports teams or leagues. A response of "yes" was coded " 1 " and a response of "no" was coded "2." Physical Education. The latent construct of physical education was assessed using one variable collected at three data points; spring of kindergarten, spring of first grade, and spring of third grade. School administrators were asked, "How many times each week do children in your c!ass(es) usually have physical education?" Responses were coded a " 1" for never, "2" for less than once a week, " 3 " for one to two times a week, "4" for three to four times a week, and "5" for daily. By utilizing the same variable across time, we were able to create a latent construct representing the overall time allotted to the participants' physical education during their early school years. Prior Mathematics Achievement- Prior mathematics achievement was assessed by a single observed variable, participants' standardized mathematics test score collected during the spring of their first grade school year. Results were recorded as T-scores indicating the children's performance relative to their peers on tests of mathematics achievement adminis- tered individually at the children's schools. Prior Reading Achievement. Prior reading achievement was assessed by a single ob- served variable, participants' standardized reading test score collected during the spring of their first grade school year. Results were recorded as T-scores indicating the children's perfor- mance relative to their peers on tests of reading achievement administered individually at the children's schools. > Physical Activity and Achievement... /377 Table 1: Means and Standard Deviations for all Variables by Sex Variable SES Physical activity Aerohic Activity Exercise (20 min) Sports Team/League Physical Education Kindergarten r'Grade 3"* Grade M 0.16 2.13 4.24 1.38 3.24 3.33 3.30 Prior Mathematics Achievement 1*' Grade Prior Reading Achievement 1" Grade M^ematics Achievement y"* Grade 5* Grade Reading Achievement • 3̂ " Grade 5' Grade 52.99 52.10 53.42 53.78 52.01 52.59 Boys SD 0.74 0.58 1.99 0.49 0.97 0.77 0.75 9.04 8.47 9.49 9.27 9.25 9.24 Girls M 0.18 2.12 3.73 1.55 3.20 3.32 3.29 52.25 53.39 51.44 51.53 53.37 53.41 SD 0.74 0.58 1.89 0.50 0.99 0.75 0.74 0.74 7.83 8.75 8.74 8.56 8.68 378/Journal of Sport Behavior. Vol. 31. No. 4 û I .a S S 3 o •«*•_ • 00 n-i • p • •O O -.0 1 o o -.2 1 • .2 1 -0 2 oo — • s v^ r-j (N s s S s 5 S _ rr — 3 •n — — S 3 p « p o .0 1 • p 00 •8 .0 2 p • o 'S G r, P * p • -if •8 n O p <N p « Tí- ad e O p oo « oo p •8 2 O •a p es <t p u • ^ n C LU i/J 1 E •? .S £ (2 0 t i U tiLU e u ë u u fe ^o. UJ c/i a . ad e O LU 0. ra de O hip O it h l S S Pr i 01 ad in c¿ S Pr i ^ 1> = = ca s s ¡2 Ö -^ (N S 'S uai V Cl • 5 Physical Activity and Achievement... /379 The Relationship of Physical Activity and Reading Achievement The same model was utilized to evaluate the relationship between physical activity and reading achievement for girls (see Figure 4) and boys (see Figure 5). The model provided a good fit to the sample of girls, with CFI = .97 and SRMR = .06 (x' = 699.58 (49), p < .001). Maximum likelihood estimation was utilized, and parameter estimation matrices were positive definite, with no parameter estimates outside their permissible range. All parameter estimates were statistically significant with the exception of the path (parameter estimate -.00) from physical education to reading achievement. As expected, prior reading achievement was the strongest predictor of reading achievement. Parents' reported physical activity of their chil- dren did contribute to the prediction of reading achievement (parameter estimate .16). The amount of variance accounted for in prior reading achievement by socioeconomic status was 13% and the amount of variance accounted for in physical activity by socioeconomic status was 27%. Overall, 61% of the variance of reading achievement was accounted for by the prior reading achievement, physical activity, and physical education variables. Goodness of fit indexes revealed an adequate fit to the data for the sample of boys, with CFI = .97 and SRMR=.06 (x^-775.54(49),p<.001).AII parameter estimates were statistically significant with the exception of the path from physical education to reading achievement (parameter estimate .02). Not surprisingly, prior reading achievement was the strongest predic- tor of reading achievement. Physical activity did contribute to the prediction of reading achieve- ment (parameter estimate. 15). The amount of variance accounted for in prior reading achieve- ment by socioeconomic status was 14% and the amount of variance accounted for in physical activity by socioeconomic status was 27%. Overall, 63% of the variance of reading achieve- ment was accounted for by the prior reading achievement, physical activity, and physical education variables. 382 /Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol. 31, No. 4 Figure 5: Parameter estimates for boys: Reading Achievement Discussion The purpose ofthe present investigation was to determine the independent contribu- tions of physical activity not associated with structured physical education and school based physical education participation to academic achievement in children. To achieve this pur- pose, a large sample of boys and girls were selected with appropriate data from the ECLS-K database. Parent reports of their children's involvement in physical activity outside of physi- cal education class as well as school administrator reported physical education of their chil- dren in school were our measures of physical activity and physical education. Math and reading achievement in 3"* and 5* grade were our dependent variables with special attention paid to prior math and reading achievement as well as SES. Our predictor variables were aggregates of achievement as well as physical activity and education at several time periods (i.e., kindergarten, I", 3'^ and 5* grade). The results ofthe structural models clearly indicated that parent reported physical activ- ity engagement of their children was more positively influential on math and reading achieve- ment than was physical education participation. Physical activity was comprised of parents' Physical Activity and Achievement. ../383 assessment of their children's involvement in aerobic activity, exercise of at least 20 minutes in duration, and participation in sports not associated with physical education class. Again it Is important to remember that the activity variables were aggregates of physical activity and physical education since kindergarten. Our results support several past investigations. For instance many years ago, Shepard, Lavallee, Voile, LaBarre, and Beaucage (1994) conducted the Trois Riveres experience, a large and important investigation. The investigators examined the influence of one hour of required daily physical education upon academic achievement in 546 students over a 6-year period. Experimental subjects began once they entered 1st grade and the experiment was completed once they fmished 6* grade. Over this time frame, Shepard and colleagues simply concluded that one hour a day of required physical activity did not have any adverse effects upon achievement. In the present investigation, our results with regard to physical education and academic achievement confirmed the Trois Riveres experi- ence results. Our parameter estimates were not significant and thus, our only conclusion is that physical education within the school day neither improves or detracts from academic achievement specifically math and reading achievement. Our results also support and extend the more recent results of Coe and colleagues (2006) and Grissom (2005). The Coe et al. findings indicated that while physical education was not related to academic achievement physical activity engagement meeting some or all of the Healthy People 2010 guidelines for vigorous physical activity was significantly related to higher grades over two semesters. Hence, it appears from our data that physical education as It IS currently implemented in many schools does not improve or impair academic achievement in pre-pubescent school aged children. It is appears that the key exercise component is that of intensity. Exercise intensity certainly could be incorporated into physical education classes that are offered more frequently. The challenge for physical educators is not only incorporat- mg movement skills and games to promote vigorous physical activity but also to target low SES children. Beyond the Coe et al. findings, the present results also clearly indicated that SES influenced physical activity outside ofthe school day. SES accounted for 25 to 27% of parent reported physical activity involvement of their children outside ofthe school day in the four models. In addition, SES also directly infiuenced prior academic achievement. These relation- ships clearly indicated that children from higher SES backgrounds have a greater academic achievement advantage over those from lower SES backgrounds. Grissom also found a statistically significant association between physical activity and academic achievement. Although Grissom accounted for the influence of SES in this relation- ship, prior academic achievement was not included in the analyses. Grissom commented on the difñculty in raising academic achievement beyond typical expectations even through specific mterventions. This difficulty is likely a result ofthe strong relationships between important 384 /Journal of Sport Behavior. Vol. 31. No. 4 factors, such as cognitive ability, existing knowledge, and teacher quality, and academic achieve- ment. By including prior academic achievement in our structural model, we were able to ac- count for some of these variables. We did not expect to find a strong relationship between physical activity and academic achievement because we understood that prior academic achieve- ment would account for much ofthe variance. Thus, fmding a statistically significant relation- ship with the influence of prior achievement accounted for extends the research base by lending further credence to the importance of physical activity in academic settings. Limitations ofthe Present Investigation Though our investigation supports fmdings of past research studies and has demon- strated the importance of including SES, limitations nonetheless exist. First, we would have added estimates of physical activity frequency and intensity to the latent construct of physi- cal education. The observed measures utilized the amount of time that schools devoted to physical education. However, this assessment in no way considers the intensity or frequency of each child's participation in physical education. It is highly unlikely that physical education classes provided the minimal requirements for vigorous physical activity as numerous studies have demonstrated that physical education classes fail in this regard as several investigations have demonstrated that elementary students in physical education classes spend less than 37% of time in moderate to vigorous physical activity (e.g., Friedman et al., 2003). One investi- gation reported that in a 30 minute physical education class only 3.7 minutes were at a moder- ate to vigorous intensity (Stewart & Destache, 1992). In addition concerning exercise fre- quency, students receiving special education services including speech therapy and counsel- ing are often taken from physical education class. Thus, not having accurate measurements of physical activity participation and actual intensity was a limitation. Despite the concern over the measurement of physical education, the results lend in- sight into how physical education is valued In the public schools. On average, the children in the present study received physical education only 1-2 times a week. Even if the students beneflted from ideal instruction provided by certified teachers that led to vigorous, sustained aerohic activity, the amount of time they would have spent engaged in physical activity would not likely reach the threshold required to enjoy the positive health beneflts. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2005) recommends that children participate in 60 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity most days ofthe week. Given children spend much of their day in the public school setting where they receive physical education only 1-2 times weekly, their opportunity for physical activity and meeting healthy guidelines is limited. This is troubling not only for the implications related to children's health but also because physical activity seems to be positively associated with academic Physical Activity and Achievement. ../387 Haskell, W. L. (1994). J.B. Wolffe memorial lecture. Health consequences of physical activity: Understanding and challenges regarding dose-response. Medicine <& Science in Sports & Exercise, 26,649-660. Hillman, C. H., Casteili, D. M., & Buck. S. M. (2005). Aerobic fitness and neurocognitive function in healthy préadolescent children. 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