Diffusion of Innovations: A Theory of How New Ideas and Technology Spread, Study Guides, Projects, Research of Voice

Download Diffusion of Innovations: A Theory of How New Ideas and Technology Spread and more Study Guides, Projects, Research Voice in PDF only on Docsity! Diffusion of innovations 1 Diffusion of innovations The diffusion of innovations according to Rogers. With successive groups of consumers adopting the new technology (shown in blue), its market share (yellow) will eventually reach the saturation level. In mathematics the S curve is known as the logistic function. Diffusion of Innovations is a theory that seeks to explain how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures. The concept was first studied by the French sociologist Gabriel Tarde (1890) and by German and Austrian anthropologists such as Friedrich Ratzel and Leo Frobenius.[1] Its basic epidemiological or internal-influence form was formulated by H. Earl Pemberton,[2] who provided examples of institutional diffusion such as postage stamps and compulsory school laws. History In 1962 Everett Rogers, a professor of rural sociology published Diffusion of Innovations. In the book, Rogers synthesized research from over 508 diffusion studies and produced a theory for the adoption of innovations among individuals and organizations. The book proposed 4 main elements that influence the spread of a new idea: the innovation, communication channels, time, and a social system. That is, diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system. Individuals progress through 5 stages: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation. If the innovation is adopted, it spreads via various communication channels. During communication, the idea is rarely evaluated from a scientific standpoint; rather, subjective perceptions of the innovation influence diffusion. The process occurs over time. Finally, social systems determine diffusion, norms on diffusion, roles of opinion leaders and change agents, types of innovation decisions, and innovation consequences. To use Rogers’ model in health requires us to assume that the innovation in classical diffusion theory is equivalent to scientific research findings in the context of practice, an assumption that has not been rigorously tested.[3] The origins of the diffusion of innovations theory are varied and span across multiple disciplines. Rogers identifies six main traditions that impacted diffusion research: anthropology, early sociology, rural sociology, education, industrial, and medical sociology. The diffusion of innovation theory has been largely influenced by the work of rural sociologists.[4] Elements The key elements in diffusion research are: Diffusion of innovations 2 Element Definition Innovation Rogers defines an innovation as "an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption".[5] Communication channels A communication channel is "the means by which messages get from one individual to another".[6] Time "The innovation-decision period is the length of time required to pass through the innovation-decision process".[7] "Rate of adoption is the relative speed with which an innovation is adopted by members of a social system".[8] Social system "A social system is defined as a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint problem solving to accomplish a common goal".[9] Decisions Two factors determine what type a particular decision is : • Whether the decision is made freely and implemented voluntarily, • Who makes the decision. Based on these considerations, three types of innovation-decisions have been identified within diffusion of innovations. Type Definition Optional Innovation-Decision This decision is made by an individual who is in some way distinguished from others in a social system. Collective Innovation-Decision This decision is made collectively by all individuals of a social system. Authority Innovation-Decision This decision is made for the entire social system by few individuals in positions of influence or power. Mechanism Diffusion of an innovation occurs through a five–step process. This process is a type of decision-making. It occurs through a series of communication channels over a period of time among the members of a similar social system. Ryan and Gross first indicated the identification of adoption as a process in 1943 (Rogers 1962, p. 79). Rogers categorizes the five stages (steps) as: awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption. An individual might reject an innovation at any time during or after the adoption process. In later editions of the Diffusion of Innovations Rogers changes the terminology of the five stages to: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation. However the descriptions of the categories have remained similar throughout the editions. Diffusion of innovations 5 p. 219). In addition opinion leaders have a set of characteristics that set them apart from their followers and other individuals. Opinion Leaders typically have greater exposure to the mass media, more cosmopolitan, greater contact with change agents, more social experience and exposure, higher socioeconomic status, and are more innovative. Organizations Innovations are often adopted by organizations through two types of innovation-decisions: collective innovation decisions and authority innovation decisions. The collection-innovation decision occurs when the adoption of an innovation has been made by a consensus among the members of an organization. The authority-innovation decision occurs when the adoption of an innovation has been made by very few individuals with high positions of power within an organization (Rogers 2005, p. 403). Unlike the optional innovation decision process, these innovation-decision processes only occur within an organization or hierarchical group. Within the innovation decision process in an organization there are certain individuals termed "champions" who stand behind an innovation and break through any opposition that the innovation may have caused. The champion within the diffusion of innovation theory plays a very similar role as to the champion used within the efficiency business model Six Sigma. The innovation process within an organization contains five stages that are slightly similar to the innovation-decision process that individuals undertake. These stages are: agenda-setting, matching, redefining/restructuring, clarifying, routinizing. Consequences of adoption There are both positive and negative outcomes when an individual or organization chooses to adopt a particular innovation. Rogers states that this is an area that needs further research because of the biased positive attitude that is associated with the adoption of a new innovation (Rogers 2005, p. 470). In the Diffusion of Innovation, Rogers lists three categories for consequences: desirable vs. undesirable, direct vs. indirect, and anticipated vs. unanticipated. In her article, "Integrating Models of Diffusion of Innovations," Barbara Wejnert details two categories for consequences: public vs. private and benefits vs. costs. Public vs. Private Public consequences refer to the impact of an innovation on those other than the actor, while private consequences refer to the impact on the actor itself.[14] Public consequences usually involve collective actors, such as countries, states, organizations, or social movements.[14] The results are usually concerned with issues of societal well-being.[14] Private consequences usually involve individuals or small collective entities, such as a community.[14] The innovations are usually concerned with the improvement of quality of life or the reform of organizational or social structures.[14] Benefits vs. Costs The benefits of an innovation obviously refer to the positive consequences, while the costs refer to the negative.[15] Costs may be monetary or nonmonetary, direct or indirect.[15] Direct costs are usually related to financial uncertainty and the economic state of the actor.[15] Indirect costs are more difficult to identify.[15] An example would be the need to buy a new kind of fertilizer to use innovative seeds.[15] Indirect costs may also be social, such as social conflict caused by innovation [15] Diffusion of innovations 6 Mathematical treatment The diffusion of an innovation often follows a logistic function or S curve. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) Several papers on the relationship between technology and the economy were written by researchers at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA). The pertinent papers deal with energy substitution and the role of work in the economy as well as with the long economic cycle. Using the logistic function, these researchers were able to provide new insight into market penetration, saturation and forecasting the diffusion of various innovations, infrastructures and energy source substitutions.[16] Cesare Marchetti published on Kondretiev waves and on diffusion of innovations.[17] A mathematical discussion of diffusion and substition models can be found in th Grübler (1990).[18] Diffusion data Diffusion curves for radio, television, VCR, cable, flush toilets, clothes washer, refrigerator, home ownership, air conditioning, dishwater, electrified households, telephone, cordless phones, cellular phone, per capita airline miles, personal computers, internet are available from link on footnote.[19] Diffusion curves for infrastructures (canals, railroads, highways, pipelines, airlines) are available from a link on the footnote.[18] Criticism Much of the evidence for the diffusion of innovations gathered by Rogers comes from agricultural methods and medical practice. Various computer models have been developed in order to simulate the diffusion of innovations. Veneris[20] [21] developed a systems dynamics computer model which takes into account various diffusion patterns modeled via differential equations. There are a number of criticisms of the model which make it less than useful for managers. First, technologies are not static. There is continual innovation in order to attract new adopters all along the S-curve. The S-curve does not just 'happen'. Instead, the s-curve can be seen as being made up of a series of 'bell curves' of different sections of a population adopting different versions of a generic innovation. Rogers has placed the contributions and criticisms of diffusion research into four categories: pro-innovation bias, individual-blame bias, recall problem, and issues of equality.[22] Electronic communication social networks Prior to the introduction of the Internet, it was argued that social networks had a crucial role in the diffusion of innovation particularly Tacit knowledge in the book The IRG Solution - hierarchical incompetence and how to overcome it. The book argued that the widespread adoption of computer networks of individuals would lead to the much better diffusion of innovations, and with greater understanding of their possible shortcomings, and the identification of needed innovations that would not have otherwise occurred - the Relevance paradox. Diffusion of innovations 7 References Notations • Rogers, Everett M. (1962). Diffusion of Innovations [23]. Glencoe: Free Press. ISBN 0612628434. • Rogers, Everett M. (1983). Diffusion of Innovations. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02-926650-2 • Wejnert, Barbara (2002). "Integrating Models of Diffusion of Innovations: A Conceptual Framework". Annual Review of Sociology (Annual Reviews) 28: 297–306. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.141051. JSTOR 3069244. Notes [1] see the article on Trans-cultural diffusion or Roland Burrage Dixon (1928): The Building of Cultures. [2] Pemberton, H. E. (1936) 'The Curve of Culture Diffusion Rate', American Sociological Review, 1 (4): 547-556. [3] "A Guide to Knowledge Translation Theory" (http:/ / www. hpme. utoronto. ca/ Assets/ hpme/ events/ hsr07/ davis3. pdf) [4] Ryan (1943), see above. [5] (Rogers, 1983. p. 11) [6] (Rogers, 1983. p. 17) [7] (Rogers 1983, p. 21) [8] (Rogers, 1983. p. 21, 23) [9] (Rogers, 1983. p. 24) [10] J. C. Fisher and R. H. Pry , "A Simple Substitution Model of Technological Change", Technological Forecasting & Social Change, vol. 3, no. 1 (1971) [11] (Rogers, 1983. p. 18) [12] (Rogers, 1983. p. 19) [13] Katz, Elihu & Lazarsfeld, Paul (1955). Personal influence: The part played by people in the flow of mass communications, Glencoe: Free Press [14] (Wejnert, "Integrating Models of Diffusion of Innovations," p. 299) [15] (Wejnert, "Integrating Models of Diffusion of Innovations," p. 301) [16] Ayres, Robert (1989). Technological Transformations and Long Waves (http:/ / www. iiasa. ac. at/ Admin/ PUB/ Documents/ RR-89-001. pdf). [17] [ |Marchetti, Cesare (http:/ / cesaremarchetti. org/ )] (1996). Pervasive Long Waves: Is Society Cyclotymic (http:/ / www. agci. org/ dB/ PDFs/ 03S2_CMarchetti_Cyclotymic. pdf). [18] Grübler, Arnulf (1990). The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures: Dynamics of Evolution and Technological Change in Transport (http:/ / www. iiasa. ac. at/ Admin/ PUB/ Documents/ XB-90-704. pdf). Heidelberg and New York: Physica-Verlag. pp. 12-25. [19] Moore, Stephen; Simon, Julian (Dec. 15, 1999). The Greatest Century That Ever Was: 25 Miraculous Trends of the last 100 Years, The Cato Institute: Policy Analysis, No. 364 (http:/ / www. cato. org/ pubs/ pas/ pa364. pdf). [20] Veneris, Yannis (1984). The Informational Revolution, Cybernetics and Urban Modelling, PhD Thesis. University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. [21] Veneris, Yannis (1990). "Modeling the transition from the Industrial to the Informational Revolution". Environment and Planning A 22 (3): 399-416. doi:10.1068/a220399. [22] Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York, NY: Free Press. [23] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=zw0-AAAAIAAJ External links • The Diffusion Simulation Game (https:/ / www. indiana. edu/ ~simed/ istdemo/ index. html), about adopting an innovation in education • The Pencil Metaphor on diffusion of innovation particularly ICT in education (http:/ / www. teachers. ash. org. au/ lindy/ pencil/ pencil. htm)