Public Health Nursing: Eliminating Health Disparities and Promoting Health Equity, Study Guides, Projects, Research of Public Health

Download Public Health Nursing: Eliminating Health Disparities and Promoting Health Equity and more Study Guides, Projects, Research Public Health in PDF only on Docsity! 1 Position Paper The Public Health Nurse’s Role in Achieving Health Equity: Eliminating Inequalities in Health Introduction The Association of Public Health Nurses adheres to the social principles of health equity and social justice. In 2014, a Health Equity and Social Justice Committee was formed for the purposes of updating the Association’s position on these important principles in order to continue to provide guidance to practicing public health nurses. The Committee was also charged with advancing strategies for infusing these principles throughout the activities of the organization and its members. Purpose This paper is an outgrowth of APHN’s commitment to the elimination of health disparities and the achievement of health equity for all. It underscores the important role public health nurses play in eliminating inequities in health. Its purpose is to inspire public health nurses to serve as leaders and major contributing forces in the elimination of health inequities in the United States and globally. The nursing profession was one of the early innovators in the recognition of the importance of culture in health through its recognition of transcultural nursing. Our valuation of health equity and social justice evolved out of the direct experience of witnessing the sometimes deadly hardships experienced by resident and undocumented populations at the turn of the 20th Century. These visible and deadly hardships persist to this day. For example, there is continued high mortality among African American infants, as well escalating rates of chronic diseases (notably, diabetes and hypertension). The impact of income inequities is evident on the social gradient and on quality of life. Despite the enormity of the challenges they face every day, it is imperative that public health nurses continue to move forward and develop successful evidence-based strategies and approaches in their practice settings. The incremental steps taken today are the foundation for the achievement of health equity in the future. Public health nurses have always been, and must continue to be, catalysts and change agents. This paper is a call to public health nurses across the globe that we may find our voices, renew our commitment to the elimination of health inequities, and help build durable public policy that promotes and protects health for all and assures conditions that support safe and healthy communities. 2 Definitions For the purposes of this position paper, APHN based its definition of health disparity on the Healthy People 2020 definition as “a particular type of health difference that is closely linked with economic, social, or environmental disadvantage.” (Healthypeople.gov, 2012). Health disparities adversely affect groups of people who have systematically experienced greater social or economic obstacles to health based on their racial or ethnic group; religion; socioeconomic status; gender; age; mental health; cognitive, sensory, or physical disability; sexual orientation or gender identity; geographic location or other characteristics historically linked to discrimination or exclusion APHN defines health equity as an ideal state marked by fairness and the achievement of optimal health and well-being for all populations, where disparities in health status are eliminated across populations by race, ethnicity, gender, gender identity, geography, disability, religion, sexual preference and mental status. Health equity may be viewed as an equal and fair distribution of health and well-being. Public health nurses need to be aware that research on health disparities and health equity is an evolving body of work and currently lacks agreement on common definitions. This body of work is led by notable researchers, institutions, and organizations that include the United States Department of Health and Human Services Office of Minority Health, the National Institutes of Health, the Association of State and Territorial Health Officers, the National Association of City and County Health Officials, City MatCH and the Kaiser Permanente Institute of Health Policy. As the time this paper is being produced, work continues to reconcile conceptual differences in the definitions of health disparity and health inequality. The evolution of research in this area should not dissuade public health nurses in their efforts to promote health equity. Public Health Nursing’s Roles, Responsibilities and Obligations Awareness, Respect and Humility Awareness - Awareness is the first step in the development of cultural sensitivity and competence. The public health nurse must be self-aware and self-reflective of his/her own perceptions of culture. Awareness of cultural differences and the ability to effectively care for cultures different from one’s own begins with careful, respectful listening and with careful attention to cues. One must understand the culture and the environment in order to promote healthy behaviors across populations and to develop public health policy anchored in the underlying social determinants of health. Trust - Trust is the foundation of every human relationship. The public health nurse needs to be aware that provider behaviors and clinical decisions, coupled with health system factors (such as language barriers, lack of availability and access to services, and gaps in care imposed by payers) often carry negative history. Such systems obstacles present barriers that must be overcome as the public health nurse works in partnership with families and communities. Cultural competence represents a bridge between family, community, providers, and systems. Humility- As public health nurses, we must be humble in acknowledging what we don’t know about serving diverse populations and dedicate ourselves to lifelong learning. Getting help from a trusted cultural liaison or guide can help the PHN become more knowledgeable in the culture of the diverse populations we serve. Seeking out diverse cultural experiences or emersion experiences can increase the nurse’s competence and confidence. Public health nurses must truly listen, honor, and respect the needs, preferences, desires, and hopes of our clients for themselves, their families, and their communities. 5 structures to review agency policies in order to identify and eliminate discrimination and racism in both employment practices and the services that agencies offer to communities. The public health nursing workforce should ideally reflect the diversity of the populations that are served and reflect the demographics of the larger community. Public health nurses have numerous opportunities to encourage under-represented groups to enter the public health professions and the profession of nursing. Each public health nurse, at every level needs to look within themselves and practice inclusiveness, listen to understand, and recognize the knowledge and power of each individual and group, making certain that work-related committees and teams have diverse representatives (i.e., ethnic, racial, geographic, gender, sexual orientation diversity). Public health nurses must be role models and exemplify the principles of social justice, enhance the cultural competence among their staff, and dedicate themselves to closing gaps in health outcomes that impact populations disproportionately. Partnering with Others A core competency of public health nursing is the ability to establish strategic partnerships. Public health nurses partner with groups and populations in assessing and planning interventions to address and resolve health issues, thereby learning from the community and formulating appropriate solutions. The public health nurse develops plans in partnership with communities that reflect best practices, identifies strategies, action plans and alternatives to attain expected outcomes. She/he implements identified plans through partnerships within the community. State and local health agencies need the partnership of other agencies and disciplines to effectively remove barriers to care and solve conditions not conducive to health. Public health nurses may be the first to reach out to other agencies and institutions to ensure their populations are better served. The public health nurse establishes collegial partnerships while interacting with representatives of the population, organizations, and health and human services professionals, and contributes to the professional development of peers, students, colleagues, and others. The public health nurse employs multiple strategies to promote health, prevent disease, and ensure a safe environment for populations. The public health nurse collaborates with and provides consultation to representatives of the population, various community groups, organizations, health and human services professionals and elected officials to facilitate the implementation of programs and services and to provide for and promote the health of populations. Assessment, Population Diagnosis and Priority-Setting Assessment is a core function of public health. Recognition of health disparities and tracking of progress toward their elimination requires appropriate data. Public health nurses ensure that wherever possible, data are collected to document any disparities and track progress toward their elimination. Valid, reliable data is needed to ensure the appropriate evaluation of new strategies. Public health nurses work with communities and populations to provide context and meaning to the data, and to generate and test innovative solutions to community problems. Data collected relative to health disparities need not be confined to numeric data. The explanation of numeric data can be accomplished through focus groups and interviews with group members, which can provide far better understanding of the issues impacting health than mere numbers alone. Armed with this information, the public health nurse has more comprehensive assessment data to determine population-based diagnoses and priorities. Comprehensive assessment is necessary to identify and plan for improved health outcomes. Program priorities and plans are established with the early and 6 ongoing input of populations – not after a program is in its final stages of development. Creating a Safe, Trustworthy, and Empowering Environment for Care A core value of nursing is the construct of caring. Public health nurses have unique power in the design of agency programs and services for diverse populations. It is the nurse who creates and upholds caring environments by assessing, addressing and correcting, those factors in the care environment and in clinical and community relationships that can adversely affect health. The caring environment is critical to the maintenance of relationships and to continued and sustained relations with the community. A trust-filled, empowering environment supports individuals, families and communities to engage in their care, to change and evolve and to adapt healthy behaviors and lifestyles. The strength of public health nursing lies in the capacity to uphold a caring environment regardless of the focus, whether caring for the group, the family or the individual. Creating an environment for care extends beyond delivery of services to the infrastructure of the state or local health department itself. Its mission is to assure conditions in which people can be healthy. Infrastructure, in this context, includes all core public health functions and essential public services, which must be anchored in effective public health policy. Public health nursing leaders must ensure adoption of agency policies that actively and effectively support diversity of the workforce and uphold the value of diverse partnerships. Policy-level interventions grounded in human values, social justice, and the underlying determinants of health foster an environment for care and lend an “upstream” focus on improving health status. Advocacy Advocacy is a standard of practice for public health nursing. According to the American Nurses Association’s Scope and Standards of Public Health Nursing Practice, advocacy is defined as “the act of pleading or arguing in favor of a cause, idea, or policy on someone else’s behalf, with the object of developing the community, system, individual, or family’s capacity to plead their own cause or act on their own behalf.” (American Nurses Association, 2013). Strategies to address inequalities in health can be found in policies from all areas of public health. Three approaches were identified in World Health Organization (2010) policy documents. The first approach is to incorporate strategies within the overall public health policy. Another approach is to tackle the problem through individual health topics such as smoking or nutrition. The final approach is to have a stand-alone policy addressing inequalities in health. To be effective, public policy must move toward a broad approach to health improvement, recognizing the interplay of public policies related to health, social welfare, housing, transportation, and education. The public health nurse incorporates the identified needs of the population in policy development and program or service planning, evaluates effectiveness of advocacy and strives to resolve conflicting expectations from populations, providers and other stakeholders. Taking action in this way empowers the population and preserves the professional integrity of the nurse. The public health nurse advocates to protect the health, safety, and rights of the population. Public health nursing leaders are often uniquely placed in government agencies and are in a position to be involved in issues related to policy and legislation. These opportunities should be sought out. They provide us with a forum to “to put a human face” on public health issues and problems. The stories of those we serve can provide a powerful motivation to policymakers and legislators. Educating the Current and Future Public Health Nursing and Nursing Workforce 7 The educational process must start with awareness and sensitivity to those whose culture is different from our own. This awareness must be interwoven into professional practice education and training. We are not fully competent in our profession unless we are aware of and sensitive to the needs of others and can work effectively within communities to facilitate the changes necessary to bring about greater equity in health outcomes. Public health institutions and nursing institutions of higher education have an obligation to help facilitate and support this process with their staff and students. Creating Public and Agency Policies that Support and Celebrate Diversity Public health nurses and the organizations that employ them must not only embrace diversity, but celebrate it. Agencies may celebrate diversity by showcasing and sharing culture and customs of various groups. This may also lead to deeper understanding across the agency of the various populations served. The public health nurse must reinforce the diversity message by being the prime example of respecting and valuing others. Public health nurses need to demonstrate inclusive acts as part of routine nursing care and management practices. Evaluation and Research Each public health nurse must see his or her role as more than custodial of current policies and programs. Rather, public health nurses must constantly be aware of opportunities to improve programs and services to better serve communities and population groups at increased risk of illness, injury, premature death, and disability. The public health nurse is constantly evaluating his/her own nursing practice in relation to professional practice standards and guidelines, ethics, relevant statutes, rules and regulations and against the unmet and evolving needs of the populations served. The goals for health improvement and health equity can be supported through thorough, objective evaluation of what works and what does not work, and through subsequent alterations in policy and practice. The public health nurses’ role as stewards of public investment demands it, as does the public trust. Conclusion Promoting diversity and health equity requires “upstream” thinking and action. Upstream thinking considers the social, economic, and environmental origins of health problems that manifest at the population level. There is no one correct way to begin our movement towards health equity. It will require a willingness to pause, to listen, to consider, and to reflect. We must insist on open, honest, constructive dialogue and we must be willing to learn, to assimilate our new knowledge, and to be change-makers. We must continue to enlighten and engage our partners – both traditional and non-traditional – to accompany us in the movement towards health equity. Our moral compass is the tenets, cornerstones, and standards of public health nursing practice. Our partners will include the profession of nursing, our communities, representatives of government and the public, and private, nonprofit, and voluntary sectors nationally and globally. We believe that health equity is achievable and within our reach. It is our role and responsibility as public health nurses to provide leadership in achieving this goal. We must promote nursing workforce diversity to achieve health equity. We value interventions to attract more under- represented racial, ethnic, differently – gendered minority students to the profession of nursing and to inclusive membership in our professional organizations. 10 Community Toolbox. Building Relationships with People from Different Cultures. http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/culture/cultural-competence/building- relationships/main Recognizing the Multiple Social Determinants of Health A. The social determinants of health Healthy People 2020. Program Planning- MAP-IT: A guide to using Healthy People 2020 in your community. http://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/tools-and- resources/Program- Planning Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. A New Way to Talk about the Social Determinants of Health. http://www.rwjf.org/content/dam/farm/reports/reports/2010/rwjf63023 CDC. Promoting Health Equity: A resource to help communities address social determinants of health. http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dch/programs/healthycommunitiesprogram/tools/pdf/S DOH-workbook.pdf Williams SD, Hansen K, Smithey M, Burnley J, Koplitz M, Koyama K, Young J, Bakos A. Using social determinants of health to link health workforce diversity, care quality and access, and health disparities to achieve health equity in nursing. Public Health Reports Jan-Feb 2014, 129 Supple 2:32-36. http://www.publichealthreports.org/issueopen.cfm?articleID=3079 California Department of Public Health, “ Portrait of Promise: The California Statewide Plan to Promote Health and Mental Health Equity. http://www.cdph.ca.gov/programs/documents/ B. Collaboration to address factors that impact health Community Toolbox. Multicultural Collaboration. http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of- contents/culture/cultural-competence/multicultural-collaboration/main PBS. Guidelines for Multicultural Collaboration. http://www.pbs.org/ampu/crosscult.html#GDLNS Community Toolbox. Multicultural Collaboration. http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of- contents/culture/cultural-competence/multicultural-collaboration/main Community Toolbox. Transforming Conflicts in Diverse Communities. http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/culture/cultural-competence/transform- conflicts/main Community Toolbox. Understanding Culture, Social Organization, and Leadership to Enhance Engagement. http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/culture/cultural- competence/understand-culture-social-organization/main C. Capitalizing on Community Strengths 1. Strengths-Based Approach Community Toolbox. Creating Opportunities for Members of Groups to Identify their Similarities, Differences, and Assets. http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/culture/cultural- competence/identify- similarities-differences-assets/main 11 Community Toolbox. Online Courses for Community Health Improvement. http://ctb.ku.edu/en/online-courses Module 1. Assuring Engagement in Community Health Improvement Efforts Module 2. Identifying Community Health Needs and Assets Building Communities from the Inside Out – Assets Building in the Community Community Toolbox. Our Model of Practice: Building Capacity for Community and System Change. http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/overview/model-for- community-change-and- improvement/building-capacity/main Community Toolbox. Building Inclusive Communities. http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of- contents/culture/cultural-competence/inclusive-communities/main Community Toolbox. Identifying Action Steps in Bringing About Community and System Change. http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/structure/strategic-planning/identify- action- steps/main Community Toolbox. Online TRAIN Courses for Community Health Improvement. http://ctb.ku.edu/en/online-courses Module 1. Assuring Engagement in Community Health Improvement Efforts Module 2. Identifying Community Health Needs and Assets Module 3. Conducting Community Health Assessments Module 4. Setting Community Priorities based on Identified Issues Module 5. Developing a Logic Model for Community Health Improvement Module 6. Developing a Strategic Plan for Community Health Improvement Module 7. Developing an Intervention Module 8. Assuring Collaboration during Implementation Fawcett SB, Carson V, Collie V, Bremby R, Raymer K. KU Workgroup for Community Health and Development. Promoting Health for All: an action planning guide for improving access and eliminating disparities in community health. (Contains Inventory Lists, Planning Tools and Worksheets) http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/structure/strategic- planning/identify-action-steps/main Puddy RW, Fawcett SB, Fancisco VT. KU Workgroup for Community Health and Development. Promoting Child Well-Being: An action planning guide for community- based initiatives. http://ctb.ku.edu/sites/default/files/chapter_files/promoting_child_well-being_0.pdf Leadership and Achieving Cultural Competency American Association of Colleges of Nursing. (2008, August). Toolkit of resources for cultural competent education for baccalaureate nurses. Retrieved from http://www.aacn.nche.edu/education-resources/toolkit.pdf This toolkit provides an overview of cultural competence at a basic level (i.e., for baccalaureate nurses). These areas are particularly useful and timeless: key concepts; fostering cultural competency; sections specific to teaching including basic teaching strategies, practice, and research; and descriptions of journals that are useful for content related to cultural competence in nursing. American Association of Colleges of Nursing. (2011, August). Toolkit for cultural competence in masters and doctoral nursing education. Retrieved from http://www.aacn.nche.edu/education- resources/Cultural_Competency_Toolkit_Grad.pdf This toolkit is more recent than the one above and has updates in all areas. In addition to the 12 updates, it is especially useful for its focus on cultural competence at an advanced level and for its inclusion of content about models of cultural competence from other disciplines. American Hospital Association. (2015, January). Equity of care: A toolkit for eliminating health care disparities. Retrieved from http://www.diversityconnection.org/diversityconnection/membership/Resource%20Center% 20 Docs/equity-of-care-toolkit.pdf Although this toolkit was developed for hospitals, it has a comprehensive section that focuses on building a culturally competent organization. BlueCross BlueShield of Tennessee. (n.d.). Health Literacy and Cultural Competency Provider Tool Kit retrieved from https://www.bcbst.com/providers/10- 1590_CulturalCompProvToolKit.pdf This short toolkit has some basic but helpful information on adult learners, measuring the effectiveness of health literacy interventions, and simple communications. Florida Center for Nursing. (2014). Addressing barriers in leadership for nurses: A toolkit for nurses to shape the future of healthcare through nursing leadership. Retrieved from http://campaignforaction.org/sites/default/files/Addressing%20Barriers%20in%20Leadershi p%20for%20Nurses%20-%20FL.pdf This toolkit begins with an overview of barriers to attaining leadership along with content about and resources for understanding and addressing those barriers, and then presents tools for developing leadership. The toolkit includes a section on developing cultural competence. New Mexico Public health Association. (2013). - Health in All Policies Training Toolkit. Retrieved from http://www.nmpha.org/HiAP-Articles&reports These sections of the toolkit may be helpful for leadership, organizational development, and cultural competence: 10 Promising Practices to Guide Local Public Health practice to reduce social inequities in health - Technical briefing; Teaching critical health literacy as a means to action on the social determinants of health. The latter section has some recommendations related to leadership and to cultural competence. Other sections of the toolkit may be helpful from an organizational leadership and community development perspective. University of Denver Center for Community Engagement and Service Learning. (2014). Community Organizing Handbook (3ed.). Retrieved from http://www.du.edu/ccesl/media/documents/ccesl_handbook_third_edition_print_protected .pdf Although focused on a framework for community organizing, this handbook has content that applies to building leadership in mobilizing the community and working across sectors to build coalitions with resources to attain social change. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Office of Minority Health. (n.d.) Culturally competent nursing care: A cornerstone of caring. Retrieved from competence. https://ccnm.thinkculturalhealth.hhs.gov/default.asp This online course provides, which has an introduction module and three course modules, provides CEs for nurses. The course focuses on gaining awareness, knowledge, and skills to improve the quality of care you provide to your patients. The site on which this course is located includes a toolkit, references, and resources. 15 Achieving Health Equity through Nursing Workforce Diversity http://www.hrsa.gov/advisorycommittees/bhpradvisory/nacnep/Reports/eleventhreport.p df In this report, the National Advisory Committee on Nurse Education and Practice (NACNEP) summarizes progress in nursing workforce diversity over the past 10 years within the broader national mission of eliminating health disparities, and provides recommendations for continued efforts to promote diversity in nursing. In discussions that took place during scheduled council meetings, the NACNEP identified two overarching recommendations: to promote nursing workforce diversity to achieve health equity; and to support effective decision-making and evaluation of diversity program outcomes. Evaluation and Research The Quad Council Strategic Brief on Research in Public Health Nursing Practice http://www.achne.org/files/Quad%20Council/QCStrategicBriefResearchinPHN_Practice.pdf Public Health Nursing is challenged by the lack of research evidence documenting the effects of Public Health Nursing interventions on population-focused health outcomes. Key facts include:  Public health systems and services research has emerged as a new discipline within the past 10 years.  Overlapping research agendas exist for nursing, public health nursing, and public health as set out by various organizations and groups.  Decreasing funds for research in general is compounded by the challenges in making public health nursing topics fit within existing research prioritie.s  Few nursing doctoral programs (PhD or DNP) emphasize the preparation of public health nursing researchers.  Public health nurse researchers have limited opportunities to gain updates and advanced training in rigorous methodology.  Public health nursing, as a nursing specialty, has a history of theory development, but few theories at the practice level.  Multiple data systems across public health systems (within and across states) result in inconsistent data elements, complicating comparative research efforts. Orientation of New Public Health Nursing Professionals The Orientation: Transition to Public Health Nursing Toolkit http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20463450 This toolkit was developed to enhance the integration of new hires into public health nursing practice in Ontario, Canada, and to increase retention of these hires. The changing landscape of public health in Canada, such as the introduction of new standards and competencies, presents challenges to leaders orienting staff to public health nursing. The toolkit was designed to provide a standardized general orientation, involving a broad range of public health knowledge and issues. Through the use of technology, a virtual network of public health nurses, educators, managers, senior nurse leaders and nursing professors from various areas of Ontario designed, implemented and evaluated the toolkit. Three modules were developed: foundations of practice (e.g., core competencies, national and provincial standards, public health legislation), the role of the public health nurse, and developing partnerships and relationships. Evaluations demonstrated that the toolkit was useful to new hires adjusting to public health nursing. It has had significant uptake within Canada and is well accepted by public health nursing leaders for use in Ontario's health units. 16 References Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. (2014 October). Institute of Medicine Report: Race, ethnicity, and language data: Standardization for health care quality improvement. National Academy Press: Washington, D.C. Available at: http://www.ahrq.gov/research/findings/final- reports/iomracereport/index.html American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN), (2013). Enhancing Diversity in the Workforce: Fact sheet updated April 17, 2013. Available from: http://www.aacn.nche.edu/media- relations/diversityFS.pdf . Accessed October 23, 2013. American Nurses Association. (2013). Public Health Nursing: Scope and Standards of Practice. 2 ed. Silver Spring, MD: nursebooks.org. American Nurses Association. (2015). Code for Nurses with Interpretive Statements. Available at: http://www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/EthicsStandards/CodeofEthicsforNurse s/Code-of-Ethics-For-Nurses.html American Public Health Association, Public Health Nursing Section. (2013). The definition and practice of public health nursing: A statement of the public health nursing section. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association. Available at: https://www.apha.org/~/media/files/pdf/membergroups/phn/nursingdefinition.ashx Braveman, P.A. (2003). Monitoring equity in health and healthcare: a conceptual framework. Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition, 21(3): p. 181. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). Reaching for health equity: Reducing health disparities brings us closer to reaching health equity. http://www.cdc.gov/minorityhealth/strategies2016/ Center for Public Health Nursing, Minnesota Department of Health. (2007). Cornerstones of Public Health Nursing. Available at: http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/opi/cd/phn/docs/0710phn_cornerstones.pdf HealthyPeople.gov. Disparities. Available at: https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/about/foundation- health-measures/Disparities Institute of Medicine. (2012). How far have we come in reducing health disparities? Progress since 2000: Workshop summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Available at: http://www.nationalacademies.org/hmd/Reports/2012/How-Far-Have-We-Come-in- Reducing-Health-Disparities.aspx Kawachi, I. (2002). A glossary for health inequalities. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 56(9), p. 647 Keller, LO, Strohschein, S, Lia-Hoagberg, B, Schaffer, MA. (2004). Population-based public health interventions: Practice-based and evidence-supported. Part 1. Public Health Nursing. 21(5), 453-368. Kretzmann, JP & McKnight, JL. (1993). Building Communities from the Inside Out: A path toward finding and mobilizing a community's assets. Evanston, IL: Institute for Policy Research. Available at: http://www.abcdinstitute.org/publications/basicmanual/ 17 Metzl, JM & Hansen H. (2014). Structural competency: Theorizing a new medical engagement with stigma and inequality. Social Science and Health. 103(Feb 2014), 126-133. National Association of County and City Health Officials (NACCHO). (2016). Roots of Health Inequity Collaborative Learning Course. http://www.rootsofhealthinequity.org Public Health Leadership Society. (2002). Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health. Available at: https://www.apha.org/~/media/files/pdf/membergroups/ethics_brochure.ashx Swider SW, Krothe J, Reyes D, Cravetz M (2013). The Quad Council Practice Competencies for Public Health Nursing. Public Health Nursing 30(6), pp. 519-536. http://www.achne.org/files/quad%20council/quadcouncilcompetenciesforpublichealthnurses.p df US Department of Health and Human Services. (2015 November). HHS Action Plan to Reduce Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities: Implementation progress report. Available at: http://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/assets/pdf/FINAL_HHS_Action_Plan_Progress_Report_11_2_2015. pdf US Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy People 2020. (Updated 12 Aug 2016). https://www.healthypeople.gov/ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office of Minority Health. (2015). Cultural Competency Assistance. http://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=3&lvlid=31 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office of Minority Health. (2016). The National CLAS Standards. Available at: http://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=2&lvlid=53 World Health Organization Commission on Social Determinants of Health (CSDH). (2008). Closing the gap in a generation: Health equity through action on the social determinants of health. Final Report of the Commission on Social Determinants of Health. Geneva: World Health Organization. Available at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2008/9789241563703_eng.pdf 20 Socioeconomic Status A composite measure that typically incorporates economic, social, and work status. Economic status is measured by income. Social status is measured by education, and work status is measured by occupation. Structural Competence The approach, termed “structural competency,” consists of training in five core competencies: 1) recognizing the structures that shape clinical interactions; 2) developing an extra-clinical language of structure; 3) rearticulating “cultural” formulations in structural terms; 4) observing and imagining structural interventions; and 5) developing structural humility. 21