The Shields of Achilles and Aeneas: The Worlds Portrayed by ..., Exercises of History

Download The Shields of Achilles and Aeneas: The Worlds Portrayed by ... and more Exercises History in PDF only on Docsity! Vanessa Peters The Shields ofAchilles andAeneas: The Worlds Portrayed by Homer and Vergil The epic simile is a common device in epic poetry; it forms a relationship between two un- likely things and causes one to be viewed through the lens of the other. Unlike a normal simile, an epic simile has a fully developed vehicle that reflects the complexity back on the tenor; that is, an epic sim- ile, in its increased length and depth, can have layers of complexity that a normal simile cannot. The shield of Achilles (Hom. Il. 18.558-709) in Book 18 of Homer’s Iliad and the shield of Aeneas (Verg. Aen. 8.738-858) in book 8 of Vergil’s Aeneid are examples of epic similes, in which the poet takes the role of the god who forges the shield and can comment on society unobtrusively.1 These shields convey different perspectives of Greek and Roman society. Whereas Homer shows the world of peace in con- trast to the world of war to illustrate the tragedy of the Iliad, Vergil expresses Roman triumphalism to glorify Rome and her people. Book 18 of the Iliad marks a turning point in the epic. In it, Achilles decides to return to bat- tle in order to avenge Patroclus’ death by killing Hector. Since he has lost his armour to the enemy, his mother Thetis, knowing that his fate is sealed, beseeches Hephaestus to forge him a new set (Il. 18.534). The god agrees to her request and sets out to work, creating a magnificent shield for Achilles to wear in battle. Correspondingly Book 8 of the Aeneid is also a turning point within the narrative. As war breaks out with the Latins,Aeneas sets out in accordance with a dream to seek and form an alliance with Evander. Meanwhile, his mother Venus, fearing for his life, begs Vulcan to fashion armour for Aeneas (Aen. 8.447). He acquiesces and forges a new set, which Venus delivers toAeneas. Upon receiving these arms he gazes admiringly at the gifts and most especially at the workmanship of the shield (Aen. 8.727). In both cases these shields form epic similes, both in their relation to their creators, as well as in the descriptions of their designs. An elaborate comparison is drawn between the god Hephaes- tus/Vulcan and his shield to the poet and his poem. Hephaestus and Vulcan are manifestations of Homer and Vergil in the poem. Homer’s description of the shield opens with “Hephaestus makes a great and massive shield” (Il. 18.558) and “the god creates a world of gorgeous immortal work” (Il. 18.564). Sim- ilarly Vergil begins his description with the lines: “the story of Italy, / Rome in all her triumphs. There the fire-god forged them” (Aen. 8.738-739). The god creates what the poet wishes the audience to see. Like Homer and Vergil, Hephaestus and Vulcan are craftsmen and fashion a work of art through their own medium: the gods via metals and the poets by means of words, both of which shape a world. The shield ofAchilles consists of five concentric circles, which Homer describes from the cen- tre outward. In the innermost circle Hephaestus forges the earth, the heavens and the sea (Il. 18.565-571). In the following circle he places depictions of city life, where examples of the city at peace, such as mar- riage celebrations (Il. 18.572-579) and a law case (Il. 18.580-592), are in apposition to examples of the city at war, such as the siege (Il. 18.593-604), the ambush of the herd (Il. 18.605-622) and the ensuing mêlée (Il. 18.623-628). Scenes from rural life compose the next circle, which is divided by season: spring (Il. 18.629-638), summer (Il. 18.639-653), autumn (Il. 18.654-669) and winter (Il. 18.670-688). 95 1 I will follow Fagles’ translation of both The Iliad and The Aeneid in order to maintain the same stylistic translation for my analysis. The Shields of Achilles and Aeneas The fourth circle shows dancing (Il. 18.689-707) and the outermost circle is the River Ocean, encircling the rim of the shield (Il. 18.708-709).2 In contrast the shield of Aeneas contains scenes drawn from Rome’s past, divided into a se- ries of six vignettes, which surround the shield’s prominent centrepiece. The images are in chronolog- ical order, beginning with the she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus (Aen. 8.742-747). Then follows the rape of the Sabine women (Aen. 8.747-754). Afterwards there is the segment about Mettus (Aen. 8.754-758) preceding the images of Porsenna and the attempted return of the Tarquins (Aen. 8.758- 764). The next section of scenes at the top of the shield depict the crisis of the 390s B.C.E. (Aen. 8.764- 780) including Manlius’ repulse of the Gauls, the dancing of the Salii and the Luperci, and the parade of the matrons. The final division depicts Catiline and Cato in the underworld (Aen. 8.780-785). The de- scription ends with the portrayal of CaesarAugustus’ climatic battle atActium against MarkAntony and Cleopatra (Aen. 8.785-836), and his subsequent triumphal entry into Rome (Aen. 8.836-853) is the shield’s centrepiece.3 These elaborately structured shields are examples of ekphrasis. Kurman defines ekphrasis is a literary work that describes an object of art or some other created thing.4 In the case of these shields, ekphrasis shares a similar function with the epic simile. Both operate to slow the pace of the narrative by presenting images that are not or only remotely related to the plot of the epic. Kurman equally states that ekphrases and similes cause breaks in the narrative by turning the audience’s mind and making them forget the present action in thought of something else.5 In the passages cited above, Achilles’ rage and strife recede into the background, as does the imminent war Aeneas is about to begin fighting. Achilles’ shield transports the reader spatially away from Troy to another place, whereas Vergil takes this a step further by causing not only a spatial shift, but also a temporal one to other times in Rome’s history.6 Homer and Vergil both accomplish this transportation of the reader’s attention from one place in space and time to another through their selective use of diction. Becker argues that in Homer the static visual images of Achilles’ shield translate into stories, using the particular virtues of the verbal medium.7 Putnam similarly remarks upon this in Aeneas’ shield, stating that Vergil is able to make the static imagery mobile through the activity of words.8 Thus the poets use descriptive verbs of motion and sound in the present tense rather than in the past tense and therefore convey a sense of vividness in the imagery. Verses such as “living, breathing men / grappling each other’s corpses, dragging off the dead,” (Il. 18.627-628) or “the fresh blood running / red on Neptune’s fields” (Aen. 8.815-816) would lose their 96 2Arrangement and divisions of shield imagery as presented in: Oliver Taplin, “The Shield ofAchilles within the Iliad,”Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser. vol. 27, no. 1 (1990), 5-11. 3 Divisions of the shield images as presented in: S.J. Harrison, “The Survival and Supremacy of Rome: The Unity of the Shield of Aeneas,” The Journal of Roman Studies vol. 87 (1997), 71-76. 4 As defined in: George Kurman, “Ecphrasis in Epic Poetry,” Comparative Literature vol. 26, no. 1 (1974), 1; similarly, see: A.S. Becker, “The Shield of Achilles and the Poetics of Homeric Description,” The American Journal of Philology vol. 111, no. 2 (1990), 139. 5 Kurman 1974, 5. 6 Kurman 1974, 6. 7 Becker 1990, 141. 8 Michael C.J Putnam, Virgil’s Epic Designs: Ekphrasis in the Aeneid (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 120. Vanessa Peters meeting with Evander is not accidental as the story of Hercules and Cacus (Aen. 8.220-309) is still fresh in the reader’s mind. This story exemplifies Hercules as the archetypal civilizing hero since he freed Evander’s people from Cacus. This second juxtaposition identifies Aeneas, and through himAugustus, with Hercules,13 who is not only a patron god of Rome,14 but also civilizing force. Vergil thus placesAu- gustus on par with Aeneas and Hercules. The theme of Roman survival and triumphalism underlies the centrepiece and unifies it. Vergil chooses these images from Roman history and represents them as crucial to the survival of Rome.15 In each instance some danger threatens its existence, but is overcome. At a time when Rome’s existence is most at stake, Aeneas receives this shield as a pledge of fulfilment of the mission indicated to him at Troy. He will be victorious and be able to found what will become Rome. The shield acts like a mirror in which Aeneas can look into and take pride in his future descendants— the Roman people. They can simultaneously look back and glorify in their past and know that their greatness was predestined, which Aeneas acknowledges and accepts when he lifts the shield onto his shoulders (Aen. 8.857-858). His shield shows the names and deeds of those who throughout the ages would bring Rome to its dominance of the Mediterranean. The climax of the shield is in the representation of the deeds of the shield’s greatest name,Au- gustus, who according to Vergil decisively establishes Rome as the master of the known world. Vergil declares that Augustus’ victory had ended civil strife and averted danger, and Vergil further states that Augustus would bring a peaceful golden age to Rome (Aen. 8.915-916). Throughout the poem Vergil compliments and pays tribute to the emperor, and this shield is the crux of his praise. However, Casali claims that the shield is the culmination of the Augustan political propaganda.16 Undoubtedly here Au- gustus receives a formidable weapon made of words, but his praises are not unmerited, since he brought back stability to the State. Vergil bases his shield on Homer’s, yet with important differences. Both shields are exemplars of epic simile and ekphrasis, serving the same function in slowing the pace of the narrative. Homer cre- ates a microcosm of the pastoral world recalling a past lost in the advent of war. Contrary to Homer, Vergil uses the shield device to portray an apparent future prophecy of Roman military supremacy. These differences arise from the meanings the poets wish to convey through the rhetorical device. Homer sets his shield of peace on a background of war to emphasize the opposition of the two, which illustrates the tragic quality of the Iliad by putting it into perspective. Vergil glorifies the greatness of Roman des- tiny and venerates Augustus’ central role in it. Regardless of their meanings, however, the descriptions of the shields of Achilles and Aeneas provide an opportunity where the audience can retreat from the narrative and thus contemplate the passage and the entire poem. Vanessa Peters 99 13 Christine Perkell, ed., Reading Virgil’s Aeneid: An Interpretive Guide (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999), 154. 14 Homer, The Aeneid, trans. Robert Fagles (NewYork: Penguin Books USA Inc., 2006), 421: The translation’s notes indicate that the Greatest Altar was dedicated to Hercules Invictus (the Unconquered) suggesting that he was the most prominent of the Roman pan- theon. 15 H.C.R. Vella, “Vergil’s Aeneid VIII and the Shield of Aeneas : Recurrent Topics and Cyclic Structures,” Studia Humaniora Tartuensia vol. 5, no. A1 (2004), 9. 16 Sergio Casali, “The Making of the Shield: Inspiration and Repression in the Aeneid, Greece and Rome vol. 53, no. 2 (2006), 185. 100 The Shields of Achilles and Aeneas Bibliography Primary Sources Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Robert Fagles. New York: Penguin Books USA Inc., 1990. Virgil. The Aeneid. Trans. Robert Fagles. New York: Penguin Books USA Inc., 2006. Secondary Sources Becker, Andrew Sprague. “The Shield of Achilles and the Poetics of Homeric Description.” The Amer- ican Journal of Philology vol. 111, no. 2 (1990): 139-153. Byre, Calvin S. “Narration, Description, and Theme in the Shield of Achilles.” The Classical Journal vol. 88, no. 1 (1992): 32-42. Casali, Sergio. “The making of the Shield: Inspiration and Repression in the Aeneid.” Greece & Rome vol. 53, no. 2 (2006): 185-204. Harrison, S.J. “The Survival and Supremacy of Rome: The Unity of the Shield of Aeneas.” The Jour- nal of Roman Studies vol. 87 (1997): 70-76. Kurman, George. “Ecphrasis in Epic Poetry.” Comparative Literature vol. 26, no.1 (1974): 1-13. Perkell, Christine, ed. Reading Vergil’s Aeneid: An Interpretive Guide. Norman: University of Okla- homa Press, 1999. Putnam, Michael C.J. Virgil’s Epic Designs: Ekphrasis in the Aeneid. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998. Taplin, Oliver. “The Shield ofAchilles within the Iliad.”Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser. vol. 27, no. 1 (1980): 1-21. Vella, Horatio Caesar Roger. “Vergil’s Aeneid VIII and the Shield of Aeneas: Recurrent Topics and Cyclic Structures.” Studia Humaniora Tartuensia vol. 5, no. A1 (2004): 1-17.