Theories of Mass Communication, Study notes of Mass Communication

Download Theories of Mass Communication and more Study notes Mass Communication in PDF only on Docsity! UNIT 3 THEORIES OF MASS- COMMUNICATION Structure 3.0 Objectives 3.1 Introduction , 3.2 Mass Media and Society 3.2.1 Functions 3.2.2 Interactive Perspective 3.3 Hypodermic or Bullet Theory 3.4 Psychological or Individual Difference Theory 3.4.1 Selective Exposure 3 4.2 Selective Perception , 3.5. Personal Influepce Theory 3.5.1 Two-step ROW 3.5.2 Multi-step Flow . 3.6 Sociological Theories of Mass Communication 3.6.1 Cultivntion Theory 3.6.2 Agenda Setting Theory 3.6.3 The Uses and Grntifccltion Theory 3.6.4 Dependency Theory 3.7 Normative Theories of Mass Media 3.7.1 Authoritarian Theory 3.7.2 Free Press Theory 3.7.3 Social Responsibility Theory ' 3.7.4 Communist Media Theory 3.7.5 Development Communication Theory 3.7.6. Democratic-Participant Media Theory 3.8 Some other Theories-of Mass Media 3.8.1 Mass Society Theory 3.8.2 Politicnl Economic Media Theory 3.8.3 Hegemony Theory 3.8.4 Culture and Semiotic Theory 3.9 Let Us Sum Up 3.10 Further Reading 3.1 1 Check Your Progress : Model Answers 3.0 OBJECTIVES The purpose of this unit is to familiarize you with some important theoretical issues that seek to explain how the audience uses media and the effects of mass media in society. After going though this unit, you should be able to : explain the relationship between mass media and sociky; identify the individual's. reactbns to mass media messages; i detect the interpersonal influences as barriers to mass media messages' effects; discuss the sociological theories of mass communication; discuss the normative theories of mass media; and outline the alternative approaches to mass communication theories. Theories vf 3.1 INTRODUCTION Mass Communication In the preceding Unit, we traced the development of Communication Models - fioin simple models to complex ones. We also presented some of the models evolvcd by distinguished scholars and discussed their distinct characteristics. In the present Unit, we describe some important theories of mass communication which will enable you to understand how mass communication operates in society. Having done that, in Unit IV our focus will be on areas and methods of communication research. 3.2 MASS MEDIA AND SOCIETY There has been enormous interest among social scientists to find out the effects of mass com~nunication within society. This has resulted in a number of theories which essentially trace the relationship between mass communication and society. However, no single integrated theory of communication has yet emerged which is universally accepted. We dcscribe here some important theories of mass communication to help you to understanding how mass communication operates in society. Please note that early theories were based on assumptions that mass media have enormous and direct influence upon society. But later researches provide evidence against any direct cause and effect relationship between mass communication and society; rather they underline the importance of individual differences and personal influences on transmission, acceptance and retention of message. Sociological theories portrayed mass media as an outcome of changes in society. There are other theories that express ideas on how the mass media ought to or can be expected to operate under prevailing political and economic circumstances. Some of the important theories discussed here will provide you insights into ths rolc of mass communication in society and the way in which an audience utilizes different mass media. Mass media today are inextricable form of modern society. Without these media, society probably cannot conduct its affairs effectively. On their part, mass media, in a bid to serve the people, play a significant role in spreading new ideas, new forms of behaviour and information about a variety of products. Society, whether simple or complex, needs sdme communicatibn system sa that its various organizations may perform their designated fuytions. Mass media do what is demanded n f them and while do in^ that thev draw strenath and sttnnnrt from ' Introduction to Communications they become manipulative and ay be working towards the taming of mind and indoctrination. Mass media are \ p werful instruments. In the recent past, quite a few leaders of the Third World countries have used these instruments to attain their own personal goals. Therefore, if mass media are to become credible instruments of social change, they have to function with restraint and responsibility in accordance with the changing modes of society. Activity 1 List the various mass media you used yesterday, from the time you got. up in the morning to the time you went to sleep at night. Figure out the amount of time you spent on .each medium. Date Mass Media used Programme Title . Duration ........................... .................. ........ .............................. ........................... .................. ........ .............................. ........................... .................. ........ .............................. .................. .............................. ........................... ........ .................. ........................... .............................. ........ .................. ........................... s....... .............................. 3.3 HYPODERMIC OR BULLET THEORY This theory reflects the fear or awe of Inass media being used for massive propaganda as during World War I1 when it was thought to have direct and powerful influence upon audiences. The media were seen as manipulating audiences at will. As the name "Bullet" theory suggests, the messages were thought to be like magic bullets that were shot directly into the receiver. It assumes that receivers are .passive and defenceless and take whatever is shot at them. It also means that media are extremely powerful institutions and media consumers are naive and malleable. # If one believes in Bullet theory+ one has to maintain that the audience is made up ?f an enormous undifferentiated mass of humanity and that each member of the audience would react identically to the Inass mediated messages. If that is so, thousands or millions of people who receive messages by watching horror movies or about dreadful events like war, drugs, AIDS etc. would ultimalcly become potential victims of mass media. But researches and even our own experiences with mass media do not support this view of mass audience. And this jeopardises I the'validity of Hypodermic o~Bullc$ -theory. 3.4 PSYCHOLOGICAL OR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE THEORY The psychological approach to understanding communication effects gives rise to marly theories among which an important one is individual difference theory. According to this theory, different personality variables r e s h in different reactions to. the same stimuli. In other words, an individual's psychological mechanism accounts for !is reactions to media messages. In other words, the reaction to media content differs according to motivation of audience members, their predisposition to accept or reject a given message, their intelligence, beliefs, opinions, values, needs, moods, prejudices, perceptibility, etc. From the voluminous psychological studies, two important concepts that have emerged - selective exposure and selective perception, need special consideration. Selective exposure and selective perception act as barriers between message and effect, thereby limiting the scope of direct impact of mass communication oh people. Let us discuss these two concepts. 3.4.1. Selective Exposure . Selective exposure occurs when people tend to expose themselves selectively only to communications which are in general accordance with their established convictions and avoid communications which seem to challenge their beiiefs. For instance, Communists are far more likely than Congressmen to attend.Communist rallies, read Communist literature and discuss Communist policies. If, by chance, people are exposed to contrary opidions, they arc able to perceive selectively in order to invest these hostile arguments with acceptable meanings, *us narrowing the gap between what they believe already and what they are invited to believe. - * ActiviQ 2 i While readink newspaper or watching television, are your selective about what you need or watch ? [ ] Yes [ I No In the column given below, please list down the themes/i'tems/incidents you were exposed to and state why you still remember them ? ThemedItems/Incidents Reason(@ for Remembering ........................................ .................................................... ......................................... .................................................... .................................................... ........................................ ' I ........................................ .................................................... ........................................ .................................................... . 3.4.2 Selective Perception -. n Y.. Once the izdividuals have selectively exposed themselves to the+messages,ln accordance with their preferences, they tend to "read into" the message whatever suits their needs. This process is called selective perception. Selective perception also implies the tendencies of media audience members to misperceive and misinterpret persuasive messages in accordance with their owli predispositions. The "Mr. Biggc+experiments" are classic examples which show that prejudiced people twisted the meaning of anti-prejudice propaganda s o it ended up . . reinforcing their exisiing biases. Iniroductlon ioCommunleatlons' Melvin L. De Fleur and Sandfh Ball-Rokeach have concluded that "from the vast availabld content, individual members of the audience selectively attend to, interpret and retain messages, particularly if they are related to their interest, consistent with their attitude, congruent with their beliefs and supportive of their values" (1981). These studies, which tried to discover psychological characteristics as intervening . (i.e. between media and nudience), were admirable but they remained inconclusive. The possjbilities of other specific waits of an audience which could serve as barriers between message and effects emerged from the political studies and gave rise to personal influence theory. r Check Your Progress 2 Note : i) ' Use the space given below for your answer. ii) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the Unit. I 1) Please write down five things which mass media 'can do' for society and five things which mass media 'cannot do' in the columns given below : P Can Do Cannot Do .................................................... .................................................... .................................................... .................................................... .................................................... .................................................... . . ..................................................... .................................................... .................................................... ................................................. <.. 3.5 PERSONAL INFLUENCE THEORY This theory is the outcome of a classic study of the 1940 presidential elections in the United States by Paul E. Lazarsfeld and others in the book, "The Peopk's Choice". The findings revealed that no voter seemed to have been directly influenced by the mass media. It turned out that the interpersonal relationships and not the mass media, had enormous influence on voters. Political discussions with , other people, particularly politiclal 'opinion leaders', had more influence on their decision making than their direct use of mass media. These informal communications' network, in which audiences talked to one another and sought advice from opinion leaders, had led to two-step flow influence of mass communication. 3.5.1 Two-step Flow The above mentioned .study of presidential elections revealed that many voters had limited exposure to the mass media. The information they received was mostly through other people, called "opinion leaders", who had first hand access to mass media information. It was explained like this: the information often flowed from m q s media sources directly to opinion leaders, who passed it along to less active sections of the population. Thus, the majority got information this way. The study revealed that the information received by the audience this way was secondhand and could be different from the original because the opinion leaders might add their own interpretation to it before conveying it to others. The opinion leaders, therefore, fArm valuable linkes in the two-step flow of information. This led to many studies on opinion leaders: who arc those opinion leaden ? What do they do to get information ? How are they important to the 18 di~seminationnfmassmedia messages? And so 06; Researches revealed that these are more successful in telling people "what is to think about" than in telling them "what to think". This h'ypothesis is based on a whole series of studies showing a correspondence between the order of importance given in the media to 'issues' and the order of significance attached to the same issues by the public and the politicians. Over a period of time, according to this theory, the very priorities accorded by media to issues become the public priorities as well. But the critics (McQuail, 1983) argue that the evidence is insufficient to show a causal connection between the various issue 'agendas' of the media and the public. They suggested the need for a study that combined analysis of party programmes, evidence of opinion change over time in a given section of the public: a content analysis showing media attention to different issues in the relevant period: and some indication of relevant media use by the public concerned. In the absence of such evidence, the hypothesis of agenda setting remains unproved. 3.6.3 The Uses and Gratification Theory The Uses and Gratifications Theory arose out of the studies which shifted their focus from what the media do to the people to what people do with the media (Katz 1959). The question asked is: How do people use the mass media and why ? The "uses" approach assumes that audiences are active and willingly expose themselves to media; and that the most potent of mass media content cannot influence an individual who has "no use" for it in .the environment in which he lives. The uses of mass media are dependent on the perception, selectivity, and previously held beliefs, values, and interests of the people. The term "gratification" refers to the rewards and satisfaction experienced by audiences after the use of media; it helps to explain motivations behind media use and habits of media use. Davison (1959) has shown that many research findings make more sense if communications are interpreted as a link between man and his environment. He suggests that communication effects can be explained in terms of the role they play in enabling people to bring about m o e satisfactory relations between themselves and the world around them. - Three distinct groups of uses and gratifications studies can be distinguished. The first of these groups conducts inquiries into the range of satisfaction derived from mass media material. The second group looks at the social and environmental circumstances that are responsible for people turning to the media in the first place. The third looks at the needs audience members are attempting to satisfy. Activity 4 Recall the items you selected for watching, listening to and reading in the r last 24 hours. List them down in the space provided below. In which of these cases, was the use and gratifications theory possibly applicable ? / - Theories of Mass Communication Introduction to Communications In case of items in which this theory was not applicable, what was the reason, motive, or provocation for you to expose yourself to those items'? 3.6.4 Dependency Theory Melvin De Fleur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach have proposed an integrated dependency theory of mass communication in which they recognise various psychological and social factors that prevent the media from exercising arbitrary control over their audiences. De Fleur and Ball-Rokeach describe it like this: "Mass media not only lack arbitrary influence powers, but their personal lack of freedom to engage in arbitrary communication behaviuor. Both the media and their audiences are integral part of their society. The surrounding socio-cultural context provides controls and constraints not only on the nature of media messages but also on the nature of their effects on audiences". In fact, communication in all its forms has a very important role in holding society together. The need to belong to the society, to understand the society, and to keep up with society has increased our dependency on media and, in that sense, media enjoy certain powers. Check Your Progress 4 Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit. Tick [ 4 ] the appropriate answers. 1) The Cultivation Theory says that a) repeated exposure to mass media for a long period of time makes the audience adopt the culture and values propagated by mass media; b) the audiences remain the same after having been exposed to mass media for a long time; C) inspite of long exposure to mass media the audiences are capable of cultivating their own values and culture. 2 ) According to Agenda-Setting Theory: a) the mass media always set the agenda for the people; b) the audience and the mass media have different agendas; C) the mass media influence the audience and, over a period of time, make the a t d ~ n c e priortise the issues/problems etc., in accol.daxe with the mass media. 3) The gratification theory says that the people; a) use media selectively to satisfy their needs; b) are always used by mass media; c) have no use of media in their daily life. f 4) Dependency Theory says that; a) the mass media are dependent on society; b) the society and mass media are interdependent; C) the society is dependent on mass media. 4 - NORMATIVE THEORIES OF MASS MEDIA Normative theories explain how the media 'ought to' or can be 'expected to' operate under the prevailing set of political-eocnomic circumstances. Since each sociefy controls its mass media in accordance with its policies and needs, it formulates its own separate press theory. Therefore, each theory is connected with the kind of political system in which the society has to conduct its socio-economic political affairs. Siebert et al., in 1956, mentioned four theories, based on classification of the world's national media systems into four categories. Denis McQuail, in the 1980s, considered it appropriate to add two more theories to the original set of four. He concedes that these theories "may not correspond to completk media systems" but "they have now become part of the, discussion of press theory and provide some of the principles for current media policy and practice". In the following. paragraphs we shall'discuss these theories. 3.7.1 Authoritarian Theory The term used by Siebert refers to an arrangement in which the press is - subordinated to state power and the interests of a ruling class. The theory holds that Press and other media should always be subordinate to established authority and should do nothing to undermine it. Media should avoid offence to the majority of dominant moral and political values. The Authoritarian T h e 6 justifies advance censorship and punishment for deviation from externally set guidelines. Unacceptable attack on authority, deviation from official policy, or offences against moral codes should be criminal offences. The theory is easily identified in a dictatorial or repressive society. Under certain circumstances, media are subjected to authoritarian tendencies in democratic regimes as well, especially in times of war and during internal and external emergencies. For instance, in India, broadcasting is under direct control of government and works according to its guidelines. Other media like film, video, etc., are subjected to censorship. Even the press, which is free, lost its independence and freedom during the emergency (1975-77). The authorities can and do use the provisions of Officials Secrets Act to deny free access to information, thereby hampering the freedom of the press. 3.7.2, Free Press Theory This theory, also called "Libertarian Theory", (Siebert et al.) is based-on the fundamental right of an individual to freedom of expression, which is regarded as the main legitimating principle for print media in liberal democracies. In its simple form, it prescribes that an individual should be free to publish what he or she likes; it is thus extension of other rights to hold opinions freely, to express them, to assemble and organize with others. The free press theory needs no elaboration as is evident from the First Amendment to the American Constitution which states that "Congress shall make no law,. abridging the freedom of speech or of the press. It is thus simply an absolute right of the citizen". But the application of press freedom has hardly been straight forward. Milton, Stuart Mill and many others argued that if freedom is abused to the extent of threatening good morals and the authority of the state, it must be restrained. According to de --- - - Theories of Mass Communication Introduction to Communications 3.8 SOME OTHER THEORIES OF MASS MEDIA There are other theories of rnass media, like the mass society theory, thkories deriving strengths from Marxist ideology. The cultural and semiotic theory, on the other hand, has emerged from the general sciences of signs and meaning by which we derive or transfer meaning in communication. 3.8.1 Mass Society Theory Mass Society Theory, according to Denis McQuail, emphasises the inter-dependence of institutions which exercise power in the society and'mass media are deemed to be integrated into the s'oufces of social power and authority. The media content loosely serve the interests of those who wield economic and political power. People are offered the means of relaxation and diversion. This theory gives a primacy to the media as cause and maintainer of mass society. The theory invokes the images of control and portrays the vertical direction of influence - from above down wards. 3.8.2 Political Economic Media Theory Of the several theories derived from the Marxist thought one, is l'olitical-Economic Media Theory. This theory's tocus is on the economic structure of the media rather than the ideological content of the media. Here the ideology depends on the economic base and research attention is directed to analysis of ownership structure and operation of media market forces. Thus, the media institution must be considered a part of the economic system, though with close links to the political system. Economic interests of media owners, that is, the need for profit for media 'operations', are important. The consequences are: the reduced independences of media sources; concentration on the largest markets; and , neglect of small and poorer sections of the potential audience. One weakness of this theory is that the working of public media can not be analysed solely in terms- of the free ~miirket. 3.8.3 Hegemony Theory The "Hegemony" Theory, unlike the political economic, concentrates less on the economic system and more on the ideology itself. Here, a greater degree of independence of ideology from the economic base is ert'lphasised. The relationships between the capitalist and working classes are legitimated by the media in terms 6f the voluntary consent of the workihg class itself. 3.8.4 Culture and Semiotic Theory This theory is derived from Saussure's and Peirce's studies of signs and meaning and their relation to culture, people, and objects. Saussure (1935), a linguist, stressed on texts and its meaning in the light of the "host" culture. It is thus concerned with explanation of cultural as well as linguistic meaning. Semiotics is the general science of signs, developed by philosopher and logician Peirce (1931-35), which deals 'with how signs signify. Deriving largely from both Saussure and Peirce, Fiske (1982), describes semiotics as having three aspects; the signs and the way they relate to people who use them; the codes or system into which signs are organised to meet the needs of a society or culture; and the culture within which these codes and signs operate. It is only when meaning is conveyed from sender to receiver, that communication has taken place. Semiotic theory, thus, is not concerned with transmission of message - is the case ,in process approach, but with derivation or transfer of meaning in communication. 'The focus here is on the role of communication in establishing meaning and /maintaining values and on how these values enable communication to have meaning. 'Any failure in communication is not seen as a barrier but regarded as indicative of social and cukural differences between people, culture or society. And this divergence of meaning, according to Semiotic school, can be minimized not by improving the efficiency of communication process but by reducing the social differences. "The determinants of cornrnu~cation lie in society and the world around us, not in the process itself'. (Fiske) LET ,US SUM UP Theories of Mass Communication A variety of theories of mass communication have been presented in this unit to provide an understanding -of how the mass media operate within the society and the ways in which audiences utilize mass media. As you must have noticed, there are many perspectives to study the possible impact 'of the mass media in society. The early theories were based on assumptions that mass media have enorqnous and direct influence upon society, but subsequent research showed that there are I I ~ such direct cause and effect relationship between the two. The interactive perspective considers mass media primarily as moulders of society as well as the reflectors of it. The psychologicat approach held individual's . psych~logical mechanism responsible for his reaction to media messages. The important concepts that arise from this perspective explain how selective exposure and selective perception limit the scope of direct impact of mass communication of people. $'he two-step y d multi-step flow of information theories also discredit the direct influence of mass media because of many other influences like .interpersonal channels, opinion leaders, social relations of audience which may come in between mass media and audiences and may dilute the media messages and the desired effects. The sociological approach to mass cammunication studies put greater emphasize on audiences and see them as manipulating the media more than the media manipulating them. The uses and gratifications theory assumes that people select media in their own way. The media dependency theory and the agenda-setting 57 Introduction toCommunications theory explain the way audience choose media so as not to be controlled by them. The normative theories of mass media highlight the restrictions and constraints within which mass media are made to operate under prevailing political economic conditions and thereby diminish their impact. The theories in marxist tradition consider media as "class media" which operate under clhs dominance and serve both the economic and ideological interests of the ruling class. And, finally, the theories of culture and semiology demonstrate that it is the transfer of meaning and no,t the transmission of message that makes comrnunication to take place. 3.10 FURTHER READING Denis McQuail, 1987 (Second Edition) : Mass Communication Theories : An Introduction, Sage Publications, London. John Fiske, 1982, lntroduction to Communication Studies ; Methuen, London and New' York. s 3.11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS : MODEL ANSWERS Check Your Progress 1 1) a) Mass Media inform the people of a nation about the happenings within a country. b) Mass Media bring the people and the administration close, thus, help in giving and receiving feedback about the national policies. c) Mass Media propagate the national values and culture by projecting them in various forms in different programmes. 2) Mass media are powerful instruments. They can not act on their own. The people who use these instruments are responsible for the roles played by them. They become anti-people, manipulative, biased, and propagandist, when the owners of mass media choose to be so. Check Your Progress 2 CAN DO CANNOT DO 1) Can reflect certain aspirations of 1) Cannot reflect all the aspirations of the people in a society. all the people in a society. 2) Can help people who like to use 2) Mass media are instruments. They them for some purposes. cannot act on their own. 3) Can help the members of a society 3) Mass media cannot take any to initiate interaction for a decision. decision on behalf bf the society. 4) Can only inform. 4) Cannot make the all audiences act in a similar way. 5) Can perturb the audience to a 5) Cannot make the audiences totally certain extent. passive.