Unusualness, Social Deviance, Faulty Perceptions, Significant Personal Distress, Maladaptive and Dangerousness | PSYC 250, Study notes of Abnormal Psychology

Download Unusualness, Social Deviance, Faulty Perceptions, Significant Personal Distress, Maladaptive and Dangerousness | PSYC 250 and more Study notes Abnormal Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! Six criteria that are used to define abnormal behavior: 1.) Unusualness: Abnormal behavior is taken into account when an individual displays behaviors that are uncommon or out of the ordinary. However, there is a fine line when determining if an individual is behaving abnormally. Outside factors such as religious beliefs, societal and cultural principles can cloud one’s perception of abnormality. For instance, it’s typical for people in Thailand to consume bugs and commonly, vendors at outdoor markets sell crispy insects from their carts. Thailand’s culture varies from cultures of other countries and may provide the impression of unusual and unfamiliar behavior. Although this behavior may be deemed as abnormal, assuming judgments of diverse cultures doesn’t provide an adequate baseline for categorizing abnormal behavior. 2.) Social deviance: The departure from usual or accepted standards defines deviation from social norms. The unwritten rules of society reflect expected moral standards, which often result in prejudgment of abnormal behavior or mental illness. Prior to determining if an individual has deviated from society’s norms—culture, religious customs, age, and historical context should be taken into account. In particular, if a young child took off its clothes in a public area, the occurrence would most likely be overlooked. However, if a man in his thirties took off his clothes in public he would be categorized as abnormal for violating societies standard of wearing clothing. Also, societal standards of what behavior is considered normal and unacceptable changes throughout time, sometimes suddenly. Lack of knowledge or misunderstanding of different cultures can lead us to perceive the other as abnormal. 3.) Faulty perceptions or interpretations of reality: Impaired functioning can be taken as a sign of mental disorder. Hallucinations serve as one significant sign, which are seeing movement in peripheral vision, hearing voices, or noises in the absence of a stimulus. Extreme paranoia is another sign of mental distress that can be impacted by fear and anxiety. Holding false perceptions or accusations and distrust also develop with paranoia. 4.) Significant Personal Distress: Personal challenges, distress, and unhappiness are normal hurdles we face throughout our lifetime, which can frequently result in anxiety or depression. Persistent anxiety and depression or lack of emotional responses are both indications of abnormal behavior. 5.) Maladaptive or self-defeating behavior: Maladaptive behavior is often used to identify abnormal behavior. For example, avoiding a situation because you experience illogical fears can reduce anxiety, although doesn’t diminish the issue on a long-term basis. Maladaptive behavior can lead to unhappiness and restriction to function in a particular environment. 6.) Dangerousness: Disruptive behavior that is a threat to oneself or the lives of others demonstrates abnormal behavior. However, hostile or violent behavior is not always a sign of abnormality. Sports such as boxing, football, wresting, and hockey are physically aggressive sports that don’t serve as an appropriate indication of abnormal behavior. Behavior that is unpredictable or uncontrollable such as suicide or deliberate self-harm is considered abnormal and a sign of mental distress. Relationship between cultural beliefs/norms and labeling of behavior as normal or abnormal: Definitions of abnormal behavior differ greatly from culture to culture; what may be considered typical standard behavior in one culture may be viewed as abnormal behavior in another culture. Each culture deals with internal emotions in specific ways, encompasses different religious or spiritual beliefs, and holds varying concepts of health and illness. Behavior that’s evaluated to define and classify abnormality should be contrasted with normal behavior occurring within that specific culture, to provide a baseline for abnormal behavior. Without knowledge of different cultures it’s easy to misunderstand and inaccurately identify abnormal behavior. 3 behaviors or situations considered normal occurrences in a non-USA culture which are viewed as abnormal behavior in US: Normal beliefs within the Aboriginal culture are communicating with spirits of their ancestors and relatives, and hearing deceased spirits crying out to them as they enter afterlife. As these are normal culture beliefs, it can easily be misinterpreted as abnormality such as a hallucination when viewed from the perspective of the US culture. The Native American culture embraces different beliefs and treatment of illness. Alcohol and drug addition, as known as “White man’s sickness” are considered external influences and treated outside of the Native American community by “White man’s medicine”. Illness within the Native American community or “Indian sickness” results from imbalance of internal harmony with nature and tribal life. Traditional Native American medicine men and healers treat illness within the community. In China depression and anxiety are expressed through physical complaints rather than psychological distress. In particular, a person may complain of a headache, stomachache, muscle weakness, or sore throat in contrast to emotions of depression or anxiety. History of the demonological approach to abnormal behavior: ancient and medieval times Throughout the ancient times abnormal behavior was prevalent. Human skulls discovered and investigated from the Stone Age displayed large circular craters, which were presumed to be the outcome of a medical procedure called trephination. This procedure was conducted upon the suspicion of possession of devilish supernatural forces. Performed by our ancient ancestors, trephination is a surgical method of puncturing a hole in the skull that was believed to supply a channel of departure for evil spirits. Abnormal behavior in ancient Greece was believed to be a punishment from the gods brought on by egotistical and ill-mannered individuals. Temples in which the Greeks devoted to specific gods were used as a means of treating the punished individual. It was believed that through rest and relaxation, balanced diet, and maintaining physical wellness the punished individual would be cured and restored with a newfound state of wellness. During the Middle Ages abnormal behavior was believed to be evidence of demonic possession, as taught by the Roman Catholic Church. To treat individuals possessed by the devil or evil supernatural forces an exorcist, usually a member of the Church, performed exorcisms—practices to rid one’s body of evil spirits. This included remedies of religious chants, prayer, starving the possessed individual, and using religious material such as gestures or a cross. History of beliefs about disturbed behavior and treatment of people deemed "mad" or mentally ill: The demonological model approaches earlier historical concepts of abnormal behavior. Ancient civilizations in the Stone Age and medieval times believed abnormal behavior resulted from evil supernatural forces or demonic possessions. In the medieval times exorcists in the Roman Catholic Church performed exorcisms, which were believed to banish demons from the possessed individual. The origin of abnormal behavior was also represented through theories of naturalism. Hippocrates contemporary medical concept of abnormal behavior was based on the stability of bodily humors—critical body fluids, Wilhelm Griesinger believed that pathological brain conditions caused abnormality, and Emil Kraepelin associated abnormal body conditions with mental illness. The treatment of people who were labeled as mentally disturbed was immoral. These individuals were commonly seen as inhuman and a threat to society, and were often physically restrained. Mental hospitals did not provide the appropriate medical care and patients were frequently left unattended and neglected. Society rejected the mentally ill and a majority of asylums served strictly as sources of entertainment where society ridiculed the sick. However, the reform movement did provide mentally distressed people with a glimpse of hope. Jean-Baptiste Pussin and Philippe Pinel fought for the humane treatment of people who had mental disorders, which later became known as moral therapy. Contributions of Hippocrates, Galen, Pinel, Pussin, Griesinger, and Kraepelin to the development of medical science and thinking: Biological: This contemporary perspective claims the base of abnormal behavior is caused by underlying biological defects or abnormalities. This view states when people acting abnormally they are suffering from mental illnesses or disorders that can be classified according to their distinctive causes and symptoms. They try to explain why these people are acting like this by using biological means such as a biochemical imbalance or an abnormality in body metabolism. The main contribution I can think of in the view is the thought abnormal behavior should be treated by doctors of skilled therapist, not just “locking” them away. Psychodynamic: This is a more modern view in talking about mental illness. Recent scientist has brought about the idea that there may organic reasons for abnormal behavior. One very important person with this ideal is Freud, he presented many ideas that are used in the field today. Freud believed that the mind had many states in each different levels of awareness and conscious were possible and this may relate to some mental illnesses. Learning-based: This contemporary perspective is similar to what is named. In this perspective the abnormal behavior is explained by a learned trait. This behavioral perspective claims it can explain both normal and abnormal behavior similarly because both are learned or conditioned from birth. From a learning perspective, abnormal behavior stands for the acquisition, or learning, of inappropriate, maladaptive behaviors. What make this type different from the first two forms is that it states the abnormal behavior itself is the problem, not the brain or the conscious. Scientist thinks that abnormal behavior is learned in the same way that normal behavior is learned. They also feel treatment to mental illness can be similar to behavioral modifications, such as reinforcements and punishments. This can be achieved by conditioning the mental ill to more productive and acceptable behaviors, they believe anyway. Humanistic: This perspective is relatively new in the field. It stresses self-actualization which means striving to become everything that one is capable of being. Thinking this way scientist feel you can strive to be the best self possible. If one realizes they have a problem then can take the steps to fix it with help. You have to realize it to fix it and no one can make you see the problem. Cognitive;This perspective states that thoughts, beliefs, attitudes and possibly expectations can cause of abnormal behavior. Scientists in this field stress that way we view information about our environment can lead to abnormal behavior if it is not done correctly. If we have an incorrect view of the world it can lead to a problem. Sociocultural: In this perceptive it is believed that abnormal behavior is caused elements of a failed society. That the person effected is not to blame but the society in which it has been brought up in. It is thought that many factors can be the cause of these issues but the main force behind them remains society as a whole and the problems that arise form a diverse population. This can be economical, racially or ethnically motivated. When a person doesn’t deal with these issues it can cause problems. Describe the structures of the brain and their functions. The hindbrain is the lower part of the brain that is connected to the spinal cord. It consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum (p.38). The medulla is an area involved in the regulation of heartbeat, respiration, and blood pressure. Pons is a structure involved in body movements, attention, sleep, and respiration. Lastly, the cerebellum is a structure that is involved in coordination and balance (p.39). The midbrain is the “middle” section of the brain that connects the hindbrain to the forebrain through nerve pathways. A web like network of neurons, called the Reticular Activating System or the RAS, play important roles in regulating sleep, attention, and states of arousal (p.39). The front of the brain is known as the forebrain. It includes the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the limbic system, basal ganglia, and the cerebrum. The thalamus relays sensory information and, in coordination with the RAS, is involved in regulating sleep and attention (p.39). The hypothalamus is located beneath the thalamus. It is very important because, although it is the size of a pea, it plays key roles including: regulation of body temperature, concentration of fluids in the blood, reproductive processes, and emotional and motivational states. For instance, it is involved in a range of drives and behaviors such as: hunger, thirst, sex, parenting behaviors, and aggression (p.40). The limbic system is important for emotional processing and memory. It also serves functions regulating more basic drives like: hunger, thirst, and aggression (p.40). The basal ganglia is at the base of the forebrain an are involved in regulating postural movements and coordination. The cerebrum is “the brain’s crown and glory” (p.40) because it is responsible for higher mental functioning such as thinking and problem solving. It is also why the human head has a round shape. Lastly is the cerebral cortex. It is the wrinkled surface of the cerebrum responsible for processing sensory stimuli and controlling higher mental functions, such as thinking and the use of language (p.40). 2. Describe the structure and functions of the neuron and explain how neurons communicate with each other. The three basic parts are the cell body, the dendrites, and the axon. Dendrites are root-like structures at the end of neurons that receive nerve impulses from other neurons. The axon is a long, thin part of a neuron which nerve impulses travel (p.36). It is covered in a myelin sheath that insulates it from the bodily fluids surrounding the neuron and facilitates transmission of neural impulses (p.36). The cell body contains the nucleus and metabolizes oxygen to carry out the work of the cell (p.36). Neurons communicate with each other by transmitting messages through neurotransmitters (p.36) 3. Discuss the importance of neurotransmitters relating to mental disorders. They are important because each kind has a distinctive chemical structure. If the neurotransmitter has irregularities then chemical imbalances take place causing things such as: depression, sleep disorders, and even Alzheimer’s disease (p.38). 4. Briefly describe the various parts of the nervous system, explaining what each does. There is the central nervous system which is “the body’s master control unit” involving the spinal cord and the brain (p.39). Then there is the peripheral nervous system which is “the body’s link to the outside world” (p.39). The peripheral nervous system is broken down into the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system. The somatic nervous system carries sensory organs to the CNS, and relays motor commands to muscles; controls voluntary movement. The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary bodily processes including: heart rate, respiration, digestion, and pupil contraction. The autonomic nervous system is also broken down into two parts; the sympathetic nervous system mobilizes bodily resources in response to a threat, and the parasympathetic nervous system replenishes bodily resources by promoting digestion and bodily processes (p.39). 5. Describe the basic tenets of Freud’s psychodynamic theory. Freud believed that unconscious motives and conflicts revolve around primitive sexual and aggressive instincts and the need to keep these primitive impulses out of consciousness (p.43). Also, he believed that behavior reflects unconscious motivation, inner conflict, and the operation of defense mechanisms (p. 46). 6. Describe Freud’s views on the structure of personality and the functions of each of the structures he proposed. Freud proposed the structures of personality as the id, ego, and superego. He proposed the id as the unconscious psychic structure, present at birth that contains our primitive instincts and is regulated by the pleasure principle. The ego is the psychic structure that corresponds to the concept of the self, governed by the reality principle and characterized by the ability to tolerate frustration. Lastly he proposed the superego as the psychic structure that incorporates the values of the parents and important others and functions as a moral conscience (p.44) 7. Explain what defense mechanisms are and for what they are used. Also, identify and give an example of at least 5 of the defense mechanisms proposed by Freud. Defense mechanisms are reality-distorting strategies used by the ego to shield the self from awareness of anxiety-provoking impulses (p.44). One example is repression; which is expulsion form awareness of unacceptable ideas or motives. So when a person remains unaware that they are harboring hateful or destructive impulses towards others. 2. Regression happens when the return of behavior that is typical of earlier stages of development. If someone is under a lot of pressure may bite their nails or become totally dependent on others. 3. Denial is the refusal to recognize a threatening impulse or desire. For example, if someone almost chokes someone else out then acts likes it no big deal afterwards. 4. Projection is imposing one’s own impulses or wishes onto another person; ex: a sexually inhibited person misinterprets other people’s friendly approaches as sexual advances. 5. Sublimation, which is the channeling of unacceptable impulses into socially constructive pursuits; ex: a person channels aggressive impulses into competitive sports (p.45). 8. Identify and briefly explain each of Freud’s stages of psychosexual development. Stage 1: Oral- (1st year) achieves sexual pleasure by sucking on the mother’s breast and putting things in its mouth. Stage 2: Anal- (2nd year) sexual gratification from the contracting and relaxation of the sphincter muscle. Stage 3: Phallic- (3rd year) Oedipus complex (boy is attracted to mother and is jealous of father) according to Freud child must identify with the parent of the same sex. Stage 4: Latency- (6-12 years) Sexual impulses remain latent and attention is more focused on school and play. Stage 5: Genital- (puberty) sex drives aroused. Freud believed that success in the genital stage is achieved by attaining sexual gratification through sexual intercourse with someone of the opposite sex (ideally after marriage) (p.45 & 46). 9. Describe more recent psychodynamic theories, comparing them to Freud’s views. Carl Jung introduces analytical psychology. He believed that an understanding of human behavior must incorporate self-awareness and self-direction as well as impulses of the id and defense mechanisms. He believed we have what is called the collective unconscious that contains archetypes; which are primitive images or concepts that reside in the collective unconscious. Alfred Adler introduced individual psychology. He believed people are driven by an inferiority complex, not sexual instinct. He spoke of the creative self which is a self-aware aspect of personality that strives to overcome obstacles and develop the individual’s potential. So he shifted emphasis of psychodynamic theory from the id to the ego. Karen Horney proposed the concept of basic anxiety. She also stressed the importance of child-parent relationships, but she shifted the emphasis from focusing on sexual and aggressive drives toward a closer examination of social influences on development. Heinz Hermann is one of the originators’ of ego psychology; modern psychodynamic approach that focuses more on the conscious strivings of the ego than on the hypothesized unconscious functions of the id (p.47). Erik Erikson focused on psychosocial development in contrast to Freud’s emphasis on psychosexual development. He attributed more importance to social relationships and formation of personal identity than to the unconscious process. He also proposes that our personalities continue to develop throughout adulthood. Margaret Mahler introduced object-relations theory which focuses on how children come to develop symbolic representations of important others in their lives (p.48). - Behaviorism focuses on how learning can explain a person's behavior. It explores how people's different learning experiences can cause them to have normal or abnormal behavior. The do not subscribe to the Freudian belief that there are underlying motivations to their behavior, but rather that their behavior reflects something learned. Classical Conditioning is making a response to one stimulus occur with another stimulus by associating the two. There are major components to classical conditioning; conditioned response, unconditioned response, unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus. A conditioned response is a learned response to a previously unimportant stimulus. An unconditioned response is an unlearned response. An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that provokes an unlearned response. A conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus that makes a conditioned response occur after repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus that had evoked the same response. -Operant Conditioning operate on the environment to produce effects or consequences. It is used to explain why we learn how to develop more complex behaviors such as studying or working through reinforcements. There are 2 types of reinforcers; positive reinforcers and negative reinforcers. Positive increase frequency of behavior when Advantage is it is crucial to understanding symptoms, disorders and delivering the kind of counseling that many people need to reach mental health. DSM IV has cumulative a large amount of research to use while working with different disorders. Without the separate categories that the DSM IV has distinguished, it would have been impossible to conduct this research and gather these data. It’s a big enough task to categorize an individual with pathology; the likelihood of misdiagnosing is an even scarier thought. The DSM IV is very thorough in the way that it covers differential diagnoses. Every disorder has a lengthy section where it details other possibilities and how to distinguish these disorders from each other. There are also charts called "decision trees" in the back of the book that can help clinicians narrow down diagnoses through a series of key questions. Disadvantage Many critics of the DSM IV have pointed to the fact that several of the diagnostic criteria for various disorders have a cultural bias. The manual has a definite orientation toward Anglo-American culture and does not sufficiently consider what the norm is within other cultures within America. For example, many traits associated with Dependent Personality Disorder may not be considered pathological at all among cultures that are collectivistic and place a greater emphasis on family cohesion over the individual's desires. Labeling individuals with pathologies that can be looked up in a book as though the person were a dictionary entry has been considered dehumanizing and demoralizing by many critics of the DSM IV. These critics insist that focusing on the diagnostic criteria and symptoms to the extent that many clinicians do can result in losing sight of the client as a unique individual with a unique personality and set of problems. Discuss various methods used to assess a mental disorder. Methods of assessment to determine diagnosis are interviews, psychological testing, self-report questionnaires, behavioral measures, and physiological measures. Describe what is meant by a clinical interview, identifying the topics typically covered during an intake interview, and contrasting structured with unstructured interviews. Clinical interview most widely used of assessment. Interview is done face to face with a clinician. Topics that are format of most topics Identifying data, Description of the presenting problems, psychosocial history, Medical/psychiatric history, and Medical problems/medications. In unstructured interview the clinician adopts his or her own style of questioning rather than following a standard format. In semi structured interview the clinician follows a general outline of questions designed to gather essential information but is free to ask the questions in any particular order to branch off into other directions to follow up on important information. In structured interview the interview follows a preset series of questions in particular order. Distinguish between self-report and projective personality assessment techniques. Self-report are objective test that use items to measure personality traits such as emotional instability, masculinity/femininity, and introversion. People are asked to respond to specific questions or statements about their feelings, thoughts, concerns, attitudes, interests, beliefs, and the like. Projective personality assessment techniques- which a person is shown ambiguous stimuli such as shapes or pictures and asked to interpret them in some way. Discuss the history, features, reliability and validity of personality tests, focusing on the MMPI and the Rorschach. MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) - contains more than 500 true or false statements that assess interests, habits, family relationships, physical complaints, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors characteristic of psychological disorders. These questions are intended to be answered differently by members of carefully selected diagnostic groups rather than reference groups, ex. Patients with depression or schizophrenia would answer. This test was developed in 1930s and 1940s cannot provide current judgment consistent with the DSM. MMPI is used to gain general information about respondent’s personality traits and attributes that may underlie their psychological problem rather than diagnosis. MMPI is supported by large body of research findings. It discriminates between psychiatric patients and controls and between groups of people with psychological disorders such as anxiety vs. depressive disorders. Rorschach developed by Swiss psychiatrist, Hermann Rorschach. He was intrigued by the game of dripping ink on paper and folding the paper to make a symmetrical figures. He believed people saw different things in the same blot, he believed their “percepts” reflected their personalities as well as the stimulus cues proved by the blot. Today 10 blots are used because he could not publish the 15 he created at the time. Inkblots are used and the subjects are asked to tell what the blots remind them of. Clinicians who use this test make interpretations based on the content and the form of the responses. Discuss the advantages and limitations of behavioral assessment. Behavioral assessment treats test results as samples of behavior that occur in specific situations rather than as signs of underlying personality traits. Behavior is primarily determined by environmental or situational factors such as cues and reinforcement. It aims to sample an individual’s behavior in settings as similar as possible to real life situations, maximizing the relationship between the testing situation and the criterion. Limitations occur due to direct observation the lack of consensus in defining problems in behavioral terms. Such as hyperactivity in a child, the coding that determines what is hyperactive. Also when a lack of reliability or inconsistent or measurement across time or between observers, observers code specific behaviors inconsistently. Describe the following techniques: the behavioral interview, self-monitoring, use of contrived measures, direct observation, and behavioral rating scales. Behavioral interview- Posing questions to learn more about the history and situational aspects of the problem behavior. Self-monitoring- Clients are to record or monitor the problem behavior in their daily lives, which is the method of relating problem behavior to the settings in which it occurs. Use of contrived measures- Method of testing projected to stimulate the setting the behavior naturally occurs, but is performed in a laboratory or controlled setting. Direct observation- Clinicians observe and quantify problem behavior by direct observation like videotaping. Behavioral rating scales- A checklist that provides information about the frequency intensity and range of problem behaviors. Discuss sociocultural and ethnic factors in the classification of abnormal behavior. -It can be hard to classify abnormal behavior because what is considered normal in one culture may be considered abnormal in another. For example, to some Native Americans it is quite normal for people to hear voices. They think it is the spirits of the deceased communicating to them from the afterlife. Here, in the U.S., we would classify that person as being Schezophrenic. So when classifying someone as having abnormal behavior we must take into consideration their cultural norms. Discuss the features of three or more culture-bound syndromes. -Frst of all, culture-bound syndromes are patterns of abnormal behavior found within only one or few cultures. One culture-bound syndrome is TKS (taijin-kyofu-sho). This is common among young men in Japan and characterized by excessive fear of embarrassing or offending others. They may dread blushing in front of other people or may also fear mumbling thoughts out loud. Another culture-bound syndrome is Zar. This term is used in some countries in North Africa and the Middle East and describes the experience of being possessed. Being possessed is explained by sudden changes in concsiousness or identity. People affected by Zar may appear apathetic or withdrawn and refuse to carry out their normal responsibilities. A third syndrome is falling out or blacking out. It occurs among people in Southern U.S. and the Caribbean. This disorder involves an episode of sudden collapsing or fainting. The attack often occurs without warning or is preceded by dizziness. Even though the person can hear and understand what others around them are saying, they cannot see and feel they do not have the ability to move. Discuss sociocultural and ethnic factors in the assessment of abnormal behavior. -Similar to classifying abnormal behavior, researchers must keep in mind sociocultural and ethnic factors when assessing personality traits and psychological disorders. Methods of assessment must be reliable and valid when used with members of other cultures. You must also take language preferences into account. Meanings can get lost or distorted when translating from one language to another and examiners need to look at the person's cultural beliefs, values, and also look at their background before assessing their abnormal behavior. 1.Define psychotherapy and describe the basic features of psychotherapy: Psychotherapy is a interaction between the therapist and a client. Psychotherapy basically helps bring out the clients behavior,thoughts and feelings. The basic features of Psychotherapy are: 1. Systematic interaction: meaning that the therapists interact with the clients in ways that reflect theoretical point of views. 2. Psychological principles: meaning that the therapists rely on psychological principles, research and theory in their practice. 3. Behavior, thoughts, and feelings: Psychotherapy may be directed at behavioral, cognitive, and emotional domains to help their clients overcome psychological problems. 4. Abnormal behavior, problem solving, and personal growth: There are three groups of people that get help with psychotherapy. The first group are people with abnormal behavior problems such as mood disorders,anxiety,or schizophrenia. The second group of people are people with personal problems such as social shyness or confusion about career choices, these people are not considered abnormal. The third group of people are people who want personal growth for example parents, artists,performers or athletes. Eclectic therapy is an approach to psychotherapy that incorporates principles or techniques from various systems or theories. A greater percentage of psychologists identify with an eclectic or integrative orientation than any other orientation. Some therapists believe that combining elements of different therapeutic approaches will lead to a hodgepodge of techniques that lack a cohesive conceptual framework. This type of therapy is still growing and it is expected that new approaches with emerge. - Describe the features and roles of group therapy and marital and family therapy. Group Therapy: This is a form of therapy where a group of clients/people meet with a therapist. Family Therapy: this is a form of therapy where the family, not just an individual, receives treatment. Couple/Marital Therapy: A form of therapy that focuses on resolving conflicts in distressed couples. - Describe the advantages and disadvantages of group therapy. ADVANTAGES: Group therapy is often much cheaper. Many people believe that group therapy is more effective because you are surrounded by people with similar problems. Clients will learn how people with similar problems cope with them. Group members may also practice social skills. DISADVANTAGES: Some clients do not want to disclose their problems to a group. Some like the individual attention of a therapist. Some clients do not feel comfortable in a group type setting. - Describe family therapy approaches to treating the family unit. Family therapy aims to help troubled families resolve their conflicts so the family functions better as a unit and so individual family members have less stress. In family therapy they learn to communicate more effectively and to work through conflicts more efficiently. - Discuss issues relating to the use of traditional Western psychotherapy approaches with diverse cultural and racial groups. Therapists need to be culturally competent to provide appropriate services to clients of a different background. Therapists need to avoid ethnic stereotypes and demonstrate sensitivity to the values, languages, and cultural beliefs of members from a different racial or ethnic group. Discuss medical approaches to treatment including drug therapy, electroconvulsive therapy and psychosurgery. Drug therapy uses psychotropic drugs to treat psychological disorders. These drugs used to treat the disorders act on neurotransmitters in the brain. Some of the disorders these drugs are usually used to treat are depression and anxiety. Electroconvulsive therapy is used in psychiatric treatment. It is used in cases of severe depression when the antidepressants have not worked. ECT has been a controversial topic because of the method in which it works by passing electric shock through a person’s head. Psychosurgery being more controversial than ECT is no longer performed today. The procedure was surgically severing nerve pathways linking the thalamus to the prefrontal lobes in the brain. It was believed that by performing this procedure the patients aggressive or violent behaviors would be controlled. Discuss the pros and cons of drug treatment The pros of using drug treatment are helping patients to stay balanced and be able to function on a day to day basis in society. The cons of using drug treatment are the possible abuse of the drug and the addiction that may come from using the drugs. Describe electroconvulsive therapy and explain why it is controversial. Electroconvulsive therapy is a method of treatment for severe depression by administrating electrical shock to the head. It has been found to be controversial because of the electrical shock going through a person’s head. Describe the prefrontal lobotomy and explain why it is controversial. Prefrontal lobotomy was used as a treatment for patients who had experienced over excitation of emotional impulses from lower brain centers. This type of treatment is more controversial than ECT because it involved surgically severing nerve pathways linking the thalamus to the prefrontal lobes of the brain. Describe the roles of the community mental health center and the mental hospital and the problems of the psychiatric homeless population. Mental hospitals provide care needed for those with severe psychological disorders. They provide a comfortable environment for the patients based on the disorder to help them to better cope with the situation. Community mental health centers help to reduce the need of hospitalization and rehospitalizations. CMH helps mental patients adjust to the community and provide continuing care. The government states that about one third of the homeless population suffers from severe psychological disorders. Many of whom were treated in mental hospitals and released back into the community. While being homeless these patients lack the treatment needed and often turn to illegal drugs. Describe three different types of preventive interventions. Unversial preventive interventions target the population as a whole and are designed to enhance prenatal health or childhood nutrition. Selective preventive interventions are targets toward individual people who have a higher than average chance of developing disorders. Indicated preventive interventions are directed towards people who have early signs of developing mental disorders.