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Download Very very important documents use this gain knowledge never be fool in this world.. and more Thesis Law in PDF only on Docsity! 61 Historical SourcesUNIT 4 THE POLITICAL SCENARIO III— CHOLAS AND CHALUKYAS1 Structure 4.0 Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Cholas 4.2.1 Chola Kingship 4.3 Local Administration: Ur and Nadu 4.4 Brahmadeya and Nagaram 4.5 Kings, Officials and Chiefs 4.6 Chalukyas of Kalyana 4.7 Culture under the Chalukyas of Kalyana 4.8 Summary 4.9 Key Words 4.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 4.11 Suggested Readings 4.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this Unit, you will learn about:  the Cholas, their territorial expansion, administration and institutional structures;  the Chalukyas of Kalyana and why they are also called Later-Chalukyas;  the military achievements of the Chalukya kings; and  the flowering of culture under the Chalukyas of Kalyana. 4.1 INTRODUCTION The Cholas — the most powerful of the peninsular polities with the Kaveri valley as the nucleus of their power — succeeded in establishing the most enduring regional state in the Tamil macro-region. This Unit will introduce you to the Cholas, their kings, officials and chiefs and their administration. The latter part of the Unit will be about the Chalukyas of Kalyana. They are also known as the Later-Chalukyas owing to the fact that they came after the Chaluyas of Badami or Western Chalukyas. We will be looking at their military achievements and the flowering of culture under their reign. 1 The Unit has been taken from BHIC 132, Unit 6. 62 History of India-III 4.2 THE CHOLAS The Cholas as a ruling power rose to eminence in the 9th century CE when Vijayalaya seized Tanjavur from a feudatory chief of the Pallavas called Muttarayas. Henceforth, the Cholas were able to establish control over Pallava territories and subdued the Pandyan power. The Chola state stood on a firm footing deriving sustenance from the resource-pocket located in the fertile and rich area of the Kaveri valley. In the period of Rajaraja I and subsequent period, various feudatory chiefs were subjugated and the earlier category of Nadu was regrouped into Valanadu and was placed under the subdued chiefs. The landed magnates were also incorporated into the state system and were provided prestigious titles and were assigned administrative and military duties which included collection and assessment of land revenue. 4.2.1 Chola Kingship The Cholas traced their origin to Suryavamsha. Mythical traditions are mentioned in the inscriptions especially in the prashastis containing the genealogies (Tiruvalangad Copper Plates, the Larger Leiden Plates and the Anbil Plates, Kanya Kumari inscription of Vira Rajendra etc.) and these are interspersed with information about historical personages. It appears that these served the purpose of legitimization of the rule of the Cholas. The prashastis of the Cholas were based on the Itihaasa- Purana tradition. The dominance of the Sanskritic and the Brahmanical traditions is well attested. The Cholas also ascribe to the legacy of the Sangam period. The genealogies of the Cholas attribute eminent and prestigious lineage to the king to legitimize his position as king. The period from the eighth year of Rajaraja onwards is marked by absence of genealogical record in the Tamil Meykirtis. These compositions narrate the military exploits of the kings, are inscribed on stone and address the Tamil landed magnates. The Cholas ascribe Kshatriya origin to themselves as is attested by the title Kshatriyasikhamani of the king Rajaraja. The Varman suffix (Sanskritic) added to the names of the kings was also a part of the process of claiming kshatriya status e.g. Adityavarman (871-906 CE) and Parantaka Varman (707-755 CE). The practice of assuming names during coronation also existed under the Cholas e.g. Prakesarivarman, Rajakesarivarman and Arumolivarman (Tamil name with a Sanskrit suffix). The charters of the Cholas consist of the prashastis and genealogies in Sanskrit and the details regarding the grant in Tamil. Hiranyagarbha and Tulabhara ceremonies were conducted by the Chola kings. The anointment ceremony was also a means to claim kshatriya position. A grant of Vira Chola points out that the king was advised by a brahmana moral preacher (dharmopadeshta) that bestowment of land to brahmanas would lead his forefathers to heaven. However, actual motive for making the grants was redistribution of resources in the form of land, gold, cattle etc. The gifts were bestowed for meritorious service provided by the brahmanas and also to seek legitimacy from them in political sphere. We have proper records of land-grants but the grants of gold, cattle etc. were merely stated in prashastis. Through the land- grants the kings tried to convert unsettled areas into agrarian settlements. These grants did not simply serve a charitable purpose. Rajaraja is regarded as Ulakalanda Perumel (the great one who measured the earth like Trivikrama) and as Shiva who established control over the land of Bhargava Rama. 65 The Political Scenario III— Cholas and Chalukyas incorporated into the state system of the Cholas as a legacy from the previous period. This is proved by the fact that these nadus were not of same size and were nucleated. The valanadus which came into existence in the period of Rajaraja I were artificially created as administrative divisions. Nadus initially emerged in fertile areas and later spread to comparatively less fertile zones. This is how the agrarian economy expanded. Nadus located in the fertile tracts were more populated than those in other areas. There are several inscriptions which give us information about nadus. Kiranur inscription of 1310 refers to the ‘urom of villages Nanjil, Peruncevur, Viraikkudi...as qualified for the Nadu or Vada-chiruvayil-nadu.’ (Veluthat 1993: 184). It is clear from the evidence of the records that the nattars were the vellalas and the functions of nattar (nadu) were performed by the vellala who held the title of Velan. The main occupation of nattar was agriculture since nadu was a collection of agricultural settlements. The copper plates which basically deal with land-grants address the nattar and the execution of the grant made by the king was entrusted to them (deciding the limits of the lands granted by the establishment of superior rights of new grantees etc.) Nattar was subservient to the will of the ruler. Nattar also supervised irrigation works. They bestowed land on temples. They also served as stockists of donation made to temples. They also supervised the grants made by individuals and exempted the lands donated from tax and, in return, took a certain sum of money as a deposit. Nadu also bestowed land on temples which was tax-free (nattiraiyili). The tax payments exempted on lands donated to the temple were now the responsibility of nadu towards the state. Nadu seems to have levied a cess for meeting these expenses. These levies or imposts were:  Nadatci,  Nattu viniyogan, or  Nattu-vyavasthai. The temple lands were sold and leased out, a process in which the nattar played an important role. Nadu seems to have been engaged in tax collection and assessment. Sometimes, the nattar performed the revenue collection task on behalf of the state and sometimes king’s personnel (komarravar) were responsible for this work. Mudaligal and Dandanayakam were functionaries deputed in nadu and as royal officials; they were entrusted with administrative responsibility. Thus, the land holders in a locality were absorbed into the state system by the Cholas. These constituted the local landed magnates and worked on behalf of the king who exercised authority over them. Nadu was the smallest unit for revenue administration. Nattup-puravu, nattu-vari (land revenue) and nattukkanakku: all refer to revenue of nadu. Nattuk-kanakku was the personnel responsible for revenue administration of nadu. The collection and fixation of the revenue of a village was carried out within the context of nadu where the village was located. When ur exempted taxes this got reflected in nadu accounts. The king’s decision to transfer the funds of temple for a specific purpose in the temple was reflected in: 66 History of India-III  the Variyilarkanakku (revenue register of royal authority) and  the Nattuk-kanakku (revenue register of nadu). This testifies to the relevance of nadu as an important part of administrative system of the Cholas in spite of its locally independent character. Nadu-vagai-ceyvar, Nadu-kurk-ceyvar, Nadu-kankani-nayagam and Nadu-kankatci were the personnel who represented royal power in nadu. Nadu Kuru is mentioned in an inscription of Kulottunga I (1116 CE) who managed the functioning of new devadana. These personnel were given the role of maintaining the accounts of temples in localities. Nadu vagai is mentioned as participating in the assembly of brahmadeya (sabha). In an inscription Nadu-kankani-nayagam is placed below Senapati. These posts of nadu officers were transferable. Some officers were entrusted with the administrative responsibility in more than one nadu. Thus, they worked as part of royal administrative machinery. 4.4 BRAHMADEYA AND NAGARAM Brahmadeyas constituted the category of brahmanas who were landholders in the agricultural tracts and who had been endowed with land (tax-free) and had organised themselves into a distinct group. Nagaram comprised of traders who carried out trading and exchange activities in the pockets which had developed into commercial centres on account of the spurt in craft production and other activities carried out by artisans. When the Cholas emerged as an important ruling power in the middle of 9th century CE in Thanjavur, there already existed many brahmadeyas which were densely populated and rich tracts in the Kaveri region. The Karantai plates of Rajendra I refer to 1080 brahmanas who inhabited Tribhuvanamahadevi Caturvedimangalam. The assembly of these brahmanas which inhabited agricultural tracts was called Sabha or Mahasabha. Most of the brahmadeyas or brahmana settlements were centred round the temple. Through the temple and the ideological focus based on the Puranas and Itihasas, Bhakti and varnashramadharma the differentiated society and monarchical polity were legitimized. Therefore, the kings endowed lands to brahmanas and created brahmadeyas as a means to legitimize their power. The inscriptions inform us that many of the brahmadeyas in the Chola period were taniyur (separate village) in a nadu. They had a separate administrative system (revenue and justice). Many of the agricultural villages were clubbed together with a taniyur. Sometimes a taniyur was placed subordinate to a temple. Here the Mulparusai was the body which looked after the work of administration. The inscriptions give the important prerequisites like age, landholding, knowledge, good behaviour for membership to an executive committee of sabha. The Karantai plates (1080 brahmanas) refer to brahmadeyas but do not inform us how the sabha and other committees were formed. They were not established by royal authority. Their origin may be attributed to Dharamashastric norms. The sabha and its committees supervised the temple lands, cattle and other resources. They assigned lands to tenants and levied rent. They kept a record of revenue collected and expenses incurred. They supervised the temple functionaries from priest to cleaner and organised the daily services of temples. Sabha acted as a group and the decisions taken were for the benefit of the organization and not individuals. 67 The Political Scenario III— Cholas and Chalukyas The brahmadeya settlements where the temple played a pivotal role lost importance in the later phase of the Chola period. After mid-11th century CE we find fewer brahmadeya tracts and more temples were constructed and the older ones were improved upon. Sometimes, the mahasabha, unable to pay the amount taken from a temple due to shortage of funds, was forced to fall back upon its income from the neighbouring village. Nagaram settlement was a tract where traders and others (including artisans) lived. “An inscription of 1036 CE from Chidambaram distinguishes between non- brahmana inhabitants of superior status (kudiga) and those of inferior status (kil kalanai). Kudiga included two merchant groups: Sankarappadiyar (lower group) and Vyaparin (higher group) plus three other groups — Vellalas (cultivators), Saliyar (cloth merchants) and Pattinavar (fishermen). The subordinate workmen (kil kalanai) were Taccar (carpenters), Kollar (blacksmiths), Tattar (goldsmiths) and Koliyar (weavers)” (Stein, 1980). Nagarattar was the representative body of traders. Nagaram settlement was a separate area. Committee of nagarattar was referred to as nagaravariyam. Nagaram also held land in common called nagarakkani. This they acquired through purchase but they also leased out land and performed the task of levying taxes and rendering services to the local groups. They maintained their records regarding income and expenditure. They also paid royal levies in the form of gold and paddy. They also allocated taxes to the local temples viz. Kadamai (tax on land), nagaraviniyogam (a tax for sustenance of nagaram) etc. In some cases Nagaram were independent of nadu (taniyur). 4.5 KINGS, OFFICIALS AND CHIEFS A number of officers were responsible for the administration in the Chola kingdom. Although there is no clear evidence of a council of ministers but Uddan-kottam seems to have served this purpose. Upward and downward mobility is noticed in the administrative hierarchy. According to conventional historiography Perundanan and Sirutaram were higher and lower category officials respectively. Senapatis (commander of troops) had the middle position referred to as Sirudanattup Perundaram. Nyayattar (judges) were of both category. Recently, historians have pointed out that these divisions are not conclusively borne out by evidence. Officials were paid by allotting land rights. Tax on land was levied in cash and kind both. Officials were referred to as holders (udaiyan, kilan) of lands. They could further sub-assign land or even sell it. Communal ownership was prevalent and customary rights of villagers were recognised. The lowest unit of administration was the village. They combined to form a nadu. A valanadu comprised of a few nadus. Taniyur was a separate village or settlement site. Above valanadu there was mandalam which was equivalent to a province. Karumigal and Panimpkkal meant officers and servants. Anbil plates refer to a brahmana Manya Sachiva. He was granted land by the king. The king conveyed his orders orally (triuvaykkelvi) especially with regard to gift to temples. The directive was conveyed through a letter (sri-mukham) issued by Anatti (executive officer) appointed by the king. The local bodies were apprised and when the process was completed a record was prepared in the presence of the local magnates called Nattukkon, Nadukilavan, Urudaiyan. 70 History of India-III Rajaraja and his successors although they still held the title. The cattle herders (manradi) supervised the grants for lighting lamps in the temples. Merchants held the titles of Cetti, Mayilatti and Palan. They even occupied the important offices like Senapati and accountant. Peruntaccan and Perunkollan were titles used by artisan category but at the most their important positions were confined to royal palace and the temple connected with it. We do not get clear evidence of a council of ministers but there existed officers like:  Purohita (dharmopadeshta),  Rajagurus,  Tirumandira olai,  Adhikari,  Vayilketpar (officer who noted the king’s directives) etc. M. G. S. Narayanan points out that Udan kuttams were like king’s companions of honour. They might have had a head because we have mention of Adhikari of Udankuttam. There are references to the court in literature (Periyapuranam etc.). The king’s court comprised of:  brahmana advisors,  priests,  Rajaguru,  Adhikaris,  Tirumandira olai nayagams,  Vayilketpar,  head of the king’s bodyguards, and  Samantas (feudatory chiefs). The various levies of this period were:  Antarayam,  Eccoru,  Kadamai (produce-rent),  Kudimai,  Muttaiy-al,  Vetti (labour-rent) and  Tattar-pattan (cash payment). Most of the imposts were exacted in kind viz. paddy. The Cholas undertook military expedition to Sri Lanka (during the time of Rajaraja I) and SriVijaya (during the time of Rajendra I). This shows the military strength of the Chola state. It seems that the cavalrymen (kudiraiccevagar), Anaiyatkal (those who fought on elephant), archers (villigal, anukkar) were names of the categories constituting the military force. Valangai (right hand) Velaikkarar were the soldiers recruited from among the peasants. Soldiers were also recruited from 71 The Political Scenario III— Cholas and Chalukyas the artisan groups (idangai - left hand). These were basically mercenary soldiers. Chola Meykkirttis refer to Kantalur Salai which has been interpreted as an educational institution in the Chera kingdom which imparted military education and training to the brahmanas which is mentioned in Meykkirttis was the place where Chera fleet was destroyed by the Chola king. This proves that Chola military prowess was insurmountable. The chiefs held an important position in the state system. In the Pandyan kingdom the only category of chiefs was Ays. In the Sangam literature there is reference to many chiefs viz. Ays, Vels, Muvas, Kodumbalurs and Adigamans. The records of the Pallavas refer to chiefs such as Gangas and Adigamans. The various other chiefs who accepted the suzerainty of Pallavas were Banas, Vettuva-adiaraiyan, Muttaraiyar etc. The chiefs of the Chola period were:  Paluvettaraiyar,  Vels,  Malavas,  Gangas,  Banas etc. It appears that the chiefs were assigned land and collected dues from it in return for padi kaval (protection of territory). In the post-Kulottunga period there is reference to Nilamaittittu: diplomatic agreement between two or more chiefs. These chiefs also had their soldiers and retainers. Their services were utilized by the Chola kings.2 Check Your Progress Exercise 2 1) Discuss the role and functions of ur and nadu. ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ 2) Define Brahmadeya settlements. ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ 3) What were the nagarams? ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ 4) Discuss briefly the Chola administrative set-up. ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ 2 The entire section on the Cholas is adapted from MHI-04, Political Structures in India, Unit 15.5, pp. 14-21. 72 History of India-III 4.6 CHALUKYAS OF KALYAN 3 The Chalukyas of Kalyana are also known as the Later Chalukyas owing to the fact that they came after the Chalukyas of Badami. They are also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas, though Kalyan became their capital only around the middle of the eleventh century. They trace their descent from Badami Chalukyas. However, the evidence is rather tenuous. The fortunes of the family were established by Taila II who seems to have been a subordinate of the Rashtrakutas. Taila II, who claimed to be the direct descendent of the Chalukyas of Badami, was governing the area of Melpati in 957 CE. It is found that later in 965 CE, The Rashtrakuta monarch Krishna III conferred Tardavadi 1000 on Tailaparasa (Taila II). The inscription from Muttagi, in Bijapur district, of 965 CE, describes him as Samadhigata-Panchamahashabda, Mahasamantadhipati, Ahvamalla Satyasraya Kulatikala. From this, it is obvious that but this time, he had risen to a high and influential status. Tardavadi referred to in the epigraph is modern Tardevadi in Bijapur district. Various inscriptions of the Chalukyas of Kalyan as also an account found in the Kannada literary work Gadayuddha of poet Ranna trace the descent of Taila II from Bhima I who was the brother of Keertivarma II, the last ruler of the Chalukyas of Badami. Taila II is mentioned as the eighth in the line from Bhima I. Vikramaditya, who was the father of Taila II, had married Bontadevi who was a Kalachuri princess of Tripuri. The Gangas who has matrimonial alliances with the Rashtrakutas, were hostile to the growing power of the Chalukyas. However the Chalukyas succeeded in routing the Gangas in 975 CE. The Hangas now acknowledged the sezerainty of the Chalukyas of Kalyana. In 992 CE, Rajaraja Cjola, who was intervening in Nolambavadi and in a succession struggle among the Chalukyas of Vengi, was also defeated by Taila II. Taila II continued with his successful campaigns and he won victories over the Latas of southern Gujarat, Gurjaras of northern Gujarat and the Chedis and the Paramaras of Malwa. The chief of the Sevunas (Yadavas) named Billama who became a feudatory of Taila II assisted the latter in his campaigns against the Paramaras. Taila II, who had several martial achievements to his credit, assumed the titled of Ranaranga-Bheema, Nija-bhuja-chakravarti (emperor by the might of his own arms) and Ratta-gharatta (grindmill to the Rattas).The period of his reign was occupied by ceaseless warfare for the consolidation and stabilization of the new Chalukyan power. The Rashtrakuta princess Jakabbe had borne him two sons. Irivabedanga Satyashraya and Dasavarma alias Yashovarma. Iribabedanga Satyashraya succeeded his father Taila II in 997 CE,in 1004 CE, the Cholas invaded Gangavadi, captured Talakad and subjugated the Gangas. The Cholas then marched deep into the Chalukyan territory upto Donur in Bijapur district.Irivabedanga sent expeditionary forces against the Chalukyas of Vengi, the Silharas of Konkan and the Paramaras of Malwa in order to secure the Chalukyan position in the east, west and north respectively. The next Chalukyan monarch was Vikramaditya V (1008-1014 CE). According to a literary work entitled Ayyanavamsha-charita-kavyam, Ayyana, a younger brother of Vikaramaditya V ascended the Chalukyan throne and ruled for a short time. 3 This Section has been written by Dr. Suchi Dayal, Academic Consultant, Faculty of History, SOSS, IGNOU. 75 The Political Scenario III— Cholas and Chalukyas survived. Itgi, Kuravatti, Lakumdi, Balligave, Gadag, Dambal, Begali and Chandanapur are notable places where beautiful temples of this dynasty have bneen found. The temples were adorned with many madanike (bracket figures), scenes from Epics and Panchatrantra. Many images are of Siva, Virbhadra, Bhairava, Durga and Kali. Some very impressive images of Siva in dhyanamudra and in the posture of cosmic dance as Nataraja were also crafted. Many agraharas, brahmapuris, ghatika-sthanas and monasteries emerged as places of learning in Kalyana, Bhallunke (Bhalki) and Gorta which were patronised by kings, noblemen, traders and merchant-guilds. They imparted education in various branches of learning and were equipped with libraries, feeding houses and residential facilities. Sanskrit and Kannada literature flourishing under the reign of the Chalukyas of Kalyana. Some of the literary luminaries of Kannada during this period were Pampa, Ranna, DUrgasimha, Nagavarma etc. Probably Machiraja, one of the mandalikas of Jayasimha II, patronised a brahmana poet, Chanraraja who composed Madanatilaka. The Kannada sript was further refined and received its elegant round shape. Many people took to writing and as a result of this, there was production of a large body of vachana literature which came to be looked upon as vachana-shastra. These were not professional writers receiving royal patronage but ame from all walks of life and wrote to help in the reconstruction of society. Various sects of Saivism, which were prevalent during this period such as Pashupata, Lakulisa and Kalamukha joined the main stream of Virashaivism. Virasaivism was a socio-religious movement which was revolutionary in nature. It was a mass movement seeking to bring about radical changes and to reconstruct the society on the basis of certain new human values. This movement was led by Basavanna (also known as Basava, Basaveshvara, Basavesha, Basavaraja, and Basavadeva) and other towering personages like saint Allama Prabhu, Siddharama, Madivala Machayya. Basavanna and his companions denounced the compartmentalization of the soiety into castes and sub-castes and its various connotations including untouchability and threw open the portals of the treasures of wisdom to all the people by their vachana writings and preachings in the regional language and brought into actual practice what they taught. They used the term Siva for the absolute Supreme Being, and not in the sense of the Trimurtis or Gods. They described those who were immersed only in worldly affairs as bhavis (worldly) as distinguished from bhaktas (spiritual minded). They were opposed to priest craft and hypiocrisy, exploitation and inequalities and steadfastly preached egalitarian valued. The protestant movement further developed with time, remaining within the broad framework of the Sanatana Dharma. Many Virashaiva monasteries helped in the promotion of education among the weaker sections of the society and to implement the programmes of social and religious reforms. As pointed out by K.A. Nilkantha Shastri, the reformist movements of this time prepared the way for the foundation of the Vijayanagara empire. It was the forerunner of the reformist movements of Mahanubhavis of Maharashtra in the 13th century, Ramananda and Kabir in the 14th century and of Guru Nanak in the 15th century.During the Vijayanagara period, the movement gathered momentum and there was a renaissance. 76 History of India-III Self Check Exercise 3 1. Describe the military aqchievements of the Chalukyan kings. 2. Write a note on the culture under the Chalukyas of Kalyana. 4.8 SUMMARY The Cholas re-emerged on the scene as the most powerful polity in the Tamil macro-region with the nucleus of their activities in the Kaveri delta. The practice of land grants intensified during this time. In this Unit we became familiar with some of the terms that occur in the inscriptions such as nattar, brahmadeya, pallichandam, devadana etc. We also studied their sifnificance in the institutional framework of the agrarian economy. The chief characteristics of nadu, ur and nagram were also taken into consideration. Later in the Unit we studied the military exploits of the Chalukyas of Kalyana. Under their reign and subsequently under the Kalachuries, many cultural achievements were attained. The Virashaiva movement which came into existence during the Kalachuri interregnum, attacked the caste system and promoted equality. It attracted followers from far and wide. 4.9 KEY WORDS Ur : a south Indian village Nadu : a locality consisting of many settlements, in early medieval south India Nagaram : market or commercial centre in early medieval south Induia Nagarattar : the corporate organization of the nagaram. Nattar : leading men of the nadu in early medieval south India Mandapika : a local entre of exchange, in between small periodic markets and larger trade entres. 4.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES Check Your Progress Exercise 1 1. See Section 4.2 2. See Section 4.2.1 Check Your Progress Exercise 2 1. See Section 4.3 2. See Section 4.4 3. See Section 4.4 4. See Section 4.5 77 The Political Scenario III— Cholas and Chalukyas Check Your Progress Exercise 3 1. See Section 4.6 2. See Section 4.7 4.11 SUGGESTED READINGS Bidar District Gazeteer 1977. Sastri, Nilakantha K. A. (1958) A History of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. Oxford University Press. Sastri, Nilakantha K. A. (1975). The Colas. Madras: University of Madras Press.