Week 4 research Ethical issues, Study Guides, Projects, Research of Business Management and Analysis

Download Week 4 research Ethical issues and more Study Guides, Projects, Research Business Management and Analysis in PDF only on Docsity! 1 , R1804D4967987 Week ,4 BS4S14 ,-V1- ,19029/Week ,4: ,Research ,Ethics STUDENT ,NAME: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,SAMIRA ,MUSA ,USMAN STUDENT ,NUMBER: , , ,R1804D4967987 INTRODUCTION Ethics ,is ,rooted ,in ,the ,ancient ,Greek ,philosophical ,inquiry ,of ,moral ,life. ,It ,refers ,to ,a ,system ,of ,pri nciples ,which ,can ,critically ,change ,previous ,considerations ,about ,choices ,and ,actions. ,Ethics ,is ,th e ,branch ,of ,philosophy ,which ,deals ,with ,the ,dynamics ,of ,decision ,making ,concerning ,what ,is ,righ t ,and ,wrong. ,Scientific ,research ,work, ,as ,all ,human ,activities, ,is ,governed ,by ,individual, ,communi ty ,and ,social ,values. ,Research ,ethics ,involve ,requirements ,on ,daily ,work, ,the ,protection ,of ,dignity , of ,subjects ,and ,the ,publication ,of ,the ,information ,in ,the ,research. ETHICAL ,CODES Human ,experimentation ,has ,been ,conducted ,even ,before ,18th ,century. ,However, ,the ,ethical ,attitu des ,of ,researchers ,drawn ,the ,interest ,of ,society ,only ,after ,1940's ,because ,of ,human ,exploitation ,in , several ,cases. ,Professional ,codes ,and ,laws ,were ,introduced ,since ,then ,in ,order ,to ,prevent ,scientific ,abuses ,of ,human ,lives. ,The ,Nazi ,experiments ,led ,to ,the ,Nuremberg ,Code ,(1947) ,which ,was ,the ,le ading ,code ,for ,all ,subsequent ,codes ,made ,to ,protect ,human ,rights ,in ,research. ,This ,code ,focuses ,o n ,voluntary ,informed ,consent, ,liberty ,of ,withdrawal ,from ,research, ,protection ,from ,physical ,and , mental ,harm, ,or ,suffering ,and ,death. ,It ,also ,emphasizes ,the ,risk- ,benefit ,balance. ,The ,only ,weak ,point ,of ,this ,code ,was ,the ,self- regulation ,of ,researchers ,which ,can ,be ,abused ,in ,some ,research ,studies. ,All ,declarations ,followed, ,forbade ,nontherapeutic ,research. ,It ,was ,only ,in ,1964 ,with ,the ,declaration ,of ,Helsinki ,that ,the ,need ,for ,non- therapeutic ,research ,was ,initiated. ,The ,declaration ,emphasized ,the ,protection ,of ,subjects ,in ,this ,ki nd ,of ,research ,and ,strongly ,proclaimed ,that ,the ,well- being ,of ,individuals ,is ,more ,important ,than ,scientific ,and ,social ,interests. , 2 , R1804D4967987 MAJOR ,ETHICAL ,ISSUES ,IN ,CONDUCTING ,RESEARCH Informed ,consent Informed ,consent ,is ,the ,major ,ethical ,issue ,in ,conducting ,research. ,According ,to ,Armiger: ,"it ,mea ns ,that ,a ,person ,knowingly, ,voluntarily ,and ,intelligently, ,and ,in ,a ,clear ,and ,manifest ,way, ,gives ,his ,consent". , Informed ,consent ,is ,one ,of ,the ,means ,by ,which ,a ,patient's ,right ,to ,autonomy ,is ,protected. ,Beaucha mp ,and ,Childress ,define ,autonomy ,as ,the ,ability ,for ,self- determination ,in ,action ,according ,to ,a ,personal ,plan. , ,Informed ,consent ,seeks ,to ,incorporate ,the ,ri ghts ,of ,autonomous ,individuals ,through ,self- ,determination. ,It ,also ,seeks ,to ,prevent ,assaults ,on ,the ,integrity ,of ,the ,patient ,and ,protect ,personal ,l iberty ,and ,veracity. ,Of ,course ,individuals ,can ,make ,informed ,decisions ,in ,order ,to ,participate ,in ,re search ,voluntarily ,only ,if ,they ,have ,information ,on ,the ,possible ,risks ,and ,benefits ,of ,the ,research. , , Free ,and ,informed ,consent ,needs ,to ,incorporate ,an ,introduction ,to ,the ,study ,and ,its ,purpose ,as ,well ,as ,an ,explanation ,about ,the ,selection ,of ,the ,research ,subjects ,and ,the ,procedures ,that ,will ,be ,follo wed. ,It ,is ,essential ,to ,describe ,any ,physical ,harm ,or ,discomfort, ,any ,invasion ,of ,privacy ,and ,any ,th reat ,to ,dignity ,as ,well ,as ,how ,the ,subjects ,will ,be ,compensated ,in ,that ,case. ,In ,addition ,the ,subjects ,need ,to ,know ,any ,expected ,benefits ,either ,to ,the ,subject ,or ,to ,science ,by ,gaining ,new ,knowledge. , A ,disclosure ,of ,alternatives ,is ,also ,required ,as ,for ,example ,in ,the ,Tuskegee ,study ,about ,syphilis. ,In ,this ,study, ,rural ,black ,men ,were ,chosen ,as ,subjects ,in ,a ,study ,of ,syphilis. ,Although ,a ,cure ,for ,syph ilis ,was ,found ,after ,the ,start ,of ,the ,study, ,it ,was ,decided ,not ,to ,treat ,them ,and ,they ,had ,not ,been ,tol d ,that ,penicillin ,was ,effective ,to ,their ,disease. , ,The ,researcher ,must ,inform ,the ,subjects ,about ,the , methods ,which ,will ,be ,used ,to ,protect ,anonymity ,and ,confidentiality ,and ,indicate ,a ,person ,with ,w hom ,they ,can ,discuss ,the ,study. ,He ,must ,also ,provide ,a ,"Noncorrosive ,Disclaimer" ,which ,states ,th at ,participation ,is ,voluntary ,and ,no ,penalties ,are ,involved ,in ,refusal ,to ,participate. ,Moreover, ,the ,s ubject ,must ,be ,told ,that ,some ,information ,has ,been ,deliberately ,withheld ,in ,order ,to ,avoid ,altered , behaviours. ,The ,researcher ,must ,also ,take ,into ,account ,that ,persons ,with ,physical, ,cultural ,and ,em otional ,barriers ,may ,require ,a ,very ,simple ,language ,in ,order ,to ,understand ,him. , ,Finally, ,the ,freedo m ,to ,withdraw ,must ,be ,explained. , 5 , R1804D4967987 , ,guilt, ,embarrassment ,or ,shame". ,In ,conclusion, ,all ,possible ,measures ,have ,to ,be ,taken ,in ,order ,to , protect ,subjects ,from ,potential ,physical, ,psychological ,or ,social ,damage ,during ,the ,research ,or ,aft er ,circulation ,of ,the ,results. , THE ,NATURE ,OF ,NURSING The ,nature ,and ,essence ,of ,nursing ,reflects ,on ,human ,beings ,and ,their ,relationship ,with ,health. ,Mc kenna ,states ,that ,the ,primary ,scope ,of ,nursing ,is ,to ,help ,persons ,to ,adapt ,in ,different ,stages ,of ,illne ss ,which ,is ,a ,rather ,task- orientated ,and ,behaviouralistic ,approach. ,On ,the ,other ,hand, ,Swanson ,notes ,that ,nursing ,views ,per sons ,as ,a ,whole ,and ,health ,as ,a ,subjective ,and ,meaningful ,experience ,of ,integrating ,with ,the ,envir onment. , Mckenna ,views ,nursing's ,main ,elements ,as ,interpersonal ,interactions ,which ,involve ,practical ,acti ons ,but ,Chinn ,and ,Jacobs ,make ,hints ,on ,holism ,as ,well. ,Literature ,contains ,diverse ,nursing ,definit ions ,which ,indicate ,the ,complicate ,and ,uncertain ,nature ,of ,it. , ,However, ,most ,authors ,reflect ,on ,ca ring ,as ,the ,most ,important ,part ,of ,nursing. ,Raya ,focuses ,on ,the ,unique ,element ,of ,caring ,in ,nursing ,while ,Swanson ,views ,Nursing ,in ,the ,same ,scope ,as ,"informed ,caring ,for ,the ,wellbeing ,of ,others". , The ,ANA ,policy ,statement ,declares ,that ,"Nurses ,diagnose ,and ,treat ,human ,responses ,to ,actual ,or , potential ,health ,problems". , This ,is ,quite ,indicative ,of ,the ,nurses' ,role, ,but ,it ,does ,not ,reflect ,the ,values, ,experience ,and ,passion ,of ,nursing. ,Swanson ,suggests ,that ,nursing ,has ,to ,do ,with ,"science, ,concern ,for ,humanity ,and ,carin g. , What ,exactly ,does ,it ,mean ,to ,care? ,Mayer ,off ,describes ,caring ,as ,an ,interaction ,which ,offers ,space ,for ,personal ,growth ,for ,both ,the ,care ,and ,the ,cared. ,Roach ,says ,that ,caring ,describes ,precious ,mo ments ,when ,participants ,realize ,their ,common ,base ,of ,humanity". , 6 , R1804D4967987 ,Burnard ,and ,Chapman ,suggest ,that ,the ,most ,important ,elements ,of ,caring ,are: ,"knowledge, ,altern ating ,rhythms ,in ,relationships ,and ,continuous ,changes ,in ,reactions ,to ,others, ,patience, ,honesty, ,tru st, ,humility, ,hope ,and ,courage". , In ,Nursing ,however, ,the ,element ,of ,caring ,is ,undervalued ,because ,the ,profession ,was ,viewed ,as ," women’s ,work" ,in ,which, ,care ,is ,governed ,by ,sentiment ,and ,not ,by ,logic. ,Nursing ,was ,perceived , by ,society ,as ,an ,extension ,of ,medicine ,while ,curing ,is ,regarded ,more ,important ,than ,"enhancing ,li fe ,quality" ,and ,preserving ,human ,dignity". , ,On ,the ,other ,hand, ,Roach ,says ,that ,the ,cure ,care ,dichot omy ,used ,to ,distinguish ,nursing ,from ,medicine ,is ,an ,artificial ,one. , As ,McNeil ,et ,al ,say, ,"Care ,is ,the ,basis ,and ,precondition ,of ,all ,cure". ,Swanson ,proposes ,a ,structure , for ,caring ,which ,includes ,maintaining ,belief ,in ,persons, ,knowing ,the ,other ,person, ,being ,with, ,doi ng ,for, ,and ,enabling. ,The ,last ,two ,are ,the ,most ,important ,parts ,related ,to ,research. ,Doing ,for, ,mean s ,predicting ,individual ,needs, ,encouraging, ,performing ,tasks ,with ,adequate ,skills ,and ,competence, ,protecting ,the ,patient ,from ,harm ,and ,preserving ,the ,dignity. , On ,the ,other ,hand, ,enabling ,means ,enhancing ,self- care ,by ,training, ,informing ,and ,explaining ,to ,the ,patient ,as ,well ,as ,assisting ,with ,finding ,alternativ es. ,Leaning ,supports ,the ,thesis ,that:" ,there ,is ,no ,discipline ,that ,is ,so ,directly ,and ,intimately ,involve d ,with ,caring ,needs ,and ,behaviours ,than ,the ,discipline ,of ,Nursing". BENEFICENCE-NON ,MALIFICENCE A ,common ,feature ,in ,professional ,conduct ,codes ,and ,those ,specific ,to ,research ,is ,the ,principle ,of ,n on- malificence. ,The ,ANA ,Code ,of ,conduct ,declares ,that ,the ,nurse ,protects ,the ,clients ,and ,the ,public ,f rom ,unethical, ,incompetent ,or ,illegal ,practice ,of ,any ,person. , However, ,even ,if ,nurses ,decide ,that ,their ,duty ,of ,caring ,and ,being ,loyal ,to ,the ,patient ,is ,more ,impo rtant, ,they ,may ,have ,to ,deal ,with ,the ,hierarchical ,and ,bureaucratic ,systems ,of ,institutions ,which ,de mand ,loyalty ,to ,subordinates ,to ,the ,institution. ,In ,case ,the ,incompetent ,researcher ,is ,a ,higher ,statu s ,professional, ,nurses ,may ,be ,obliged ,to ,show ,loyalty, ,but ,this ,can ,conflict ,with ,loyalty ,to ,patients. , 7 , R1804D4967987 Consequently, ,nurses ,may ,feel ,that ,their ,patients ,are ,vulnerable ,and ,exposed ,and ,that ,they ,cannot , prevent ,it ,because ,they ,do ,not ,have ,a ,voice ,or ,power ,to ,resist. , This ,is ,merely ,why ,many ,authors ,believe ,that ,it ,may ,not ,be ,possible ,for ,nurses ,to ,act ,as ,advocates , of ,subjects ,in ,research. ,Many ,support ,the ,idea ,that ,the ,prohibition ,from ,the ,advocacy ,role ,comes ,fr om ,the ,origins ,and ,development ,of ,nursing ,as ,a ,women’s ,occupation ,dominated ,by ,medicine ,in ,a ,b ureaucratic ,system. , CONCLUSION Ethical ,issues, ,conflicting ,values, ,and ,ambiguity ,in ,decision ,making, ,are ,recurrently ,emerging ,fro m ,literature ,review ,on ,nursing ,research. ,Because ,of ,lack ,of ,clarity ,in ,ethical ,standards, ,nurses ,must ,develop ,an ,awareness ,of ,these ,issues ,and ,an ,effective ,framework ,to ,deal ,with ,problems ,involving , human ,rights. ,This ,is ,necessary ,in ,order ,to ,come ,into ,terms ,with ,the ,issue ,of ,the ,researcher's ,value s ,relative ,to ,the ,individual's ,rights ,versus ,the ,interests ,of ,society. ,Professional ,codes, ,laws, ,regulati ons, ,and ,ethics ,committees ,can ,provide ,some ,guidance ,but ,the ,final ,determinant ,of ,how ,research ,is ,performed, ,rests ,with ,the ,researcher's ,value ,system ,and ,moral ,code. ,To ,prepare ,future ,nurses, ,ethi cs ,in ,research, ,must ,receive ,special ,attention ,in ,nursing ,curricula. ,The ,criticism ,and ,uncertainties ,t hat ,arise ,should ,be ,rather ,encouraged ,than ,suppressed ,in ,nursing ,education. ,Hunt ,suggests ,that ,in ,o rder ,to ,liberate ,nursing ,from ,its ,"technocratic ,impasse" ,ethics ,should ,be ,broadly ,interpreted ,as ,an ,a rena ,of ,new ,ideas ,which ,can ,change ,professional ,hierarchies, ,to ,open ,cross- disciplinary ,discussions, ,and ,question ,the ,concepts ,"abnormality", ,"patient" ,and ," ,illness". ,He ,also ,declares ,that ,nursing, ,not ,as ,a ,biomedical ,branch, ,but ,as ,a ,science ,and ,art ,of ,caring, ,is ,able ,to ,start ,t he ,redefinition ,of ,research ,in ,health ,care ,which ,was ,in ,the ,recent ,history ,dominated ,by ,the ,biomedi cal ,"paradigm".