Workplace Motivation & addressing sexual harassment in organization, Study notes of Psychology

Download Workplace Motivation & addressing sexual harassment in organization and more Study notes Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! Workplace Motivation & Addressing Sexual Harassment in the Organization Major Rachel Castellon Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute DEFENSE EQUAL OPPORTUNITY MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE DIRECTORATE OF RESEARCH Directed by Dr. Daniel P. McDonald, Director of Research July 2010 Technical Report No. 02-11 Workplace Motivation & Addressing Sexual Harassment, 2 Abstract This paper investigates the concept of motivation and its significance to the workplace. Goal- setting theory is discussed first as it has a long history of research in workplace motivation. Self- determination theory, a relatively new theory related to workplace motivation, is then explored. The theories are fundamentally different but ultimately have the same goal, to guide an organization in creating a work environment that allows for maximum production and for employees to experience job satisfaction and express self-efficacy. The paper concludes by highlighting the best ideas from each theory as noted by the author, as well as suggestions that go beyond the theories of goal-setting and self-determination. Workplace Motivation & Addressing Sexual Harassment, 5 workplace motivation. Self-determination theory, a relatively new theory being related to workplace motivation, will then be explored. The theories are fundamentally different but ultimately have the same goal: to guide an organization in creating a work environment that allows for maximum production and employees who experience job satisfaction and express self- efficacy. The paper will conclude by highlighting the best ideas from each theory as noted by the author, as well as suggestions that go beyond the theories of goal-setting and self- determination. Motivation in the Workplace In relating motivation to the study of work management, Steers, Mowday, and Shapiro (2004) share that motivation is derived from the Latin word movere, for movement. It is therefore easy to see how movement directly ties to an organization as leadership, teamwork, change, production, management decisions, and ethical choices all involve moving in a direction (Steers et al., 2004). According to Ambrose and Kulik (1999), work motivation is confined to ―events and phenomena related to people in a work context‖ thereby including environmental elements such as the organization‘s compensation system and type of work, as well as an employee‘s perceptions of work (their needs and motives; p. 231). Further still, Latham and Ernst (2006) posit that work motivation is a combination of forces with energy that ―originate within as well as beyond an individual‘s being,‖ and is a process that is psychological and commonly shared between the person and the organization as options, efforts, and persistence all are affected (p. 181). According to Latham and Ernst (2006), it was Vroom‘s expectancy theory (1964) that put I/O psychology on the path of more definitively studying organizational behavior and workplace Workplace Motivation & Addressing Sexual Harassment, 6 motivation through the three pillars of motivation (choice, effort, persistence), resulting in a coherent decision-making process. Further, Latham and Ernst put forward that: Psychologists now knew the importance of (1) taking into account a person's needs (Maslow's need hierarchy theory, Hackman and Oldham's job characteristics theory), (2) creating a job environment that is likely to facilitate self-motivation (Herzberg's job enrichment theory, Hackman and Oldham's job characteristics theory), and (3) ways to directly modify, that is, to directly increase or decrease another person's behavior by administering environmental reinforcers and punishers contingent upon a person's response (Skinner's contingency theory). (p. 183) In viewing a somewhat different perspective, however, Ambrose and Kulik (1999) share that workplace motivation translates into seven categories of theories: ―motives and needs; expectancy theory; equity theory; goal-setting; cognitive evaluation theory; work design; reinforcement theory‖ (p. 231). Regardless of the point of view towards organizational behavior and workplace motivation, it is ultimately understood that an employee‘s motivation is inherently linked to the leadership displayed in an organization (Latham & Ernst, 2006). As the workplace continues to evolve with new processes, and technology becomes increasingly embedded and necessary for success, organizations‘ leadership structure will change and in order to ―ensure motivation in a global, diverse and increasingly well educated workplace‖ we will see leadership that is not confined to one person, but synergized through the dynamic relationships among employees (Latham & Ernst, 2006, p. 191). These organizational relationships should always be professional and designed around respect, but unfortunately that isn‘t always the case. When accusations of sexual harassment Workplace Motivation & Addressing Sexual Harassment, 7 occur, emotions will factor in and misunderstandings, fear, and concern will undoubtedly be displayed by employees who are part of the accusation or are witness to an event that was obviously inappropriate. Landy and Conte (2004) define emotion as ―an effect or feeling, often experienced and displayed in reaction to an event or thought and accompanied by physiological changes in various systems of the body‖ (p. 79) and this undoubtedly can negatively impact motivation in the workplace. Sexual harassment can be a traumatic experience for the victim, and it can also cause great damage to an organization‘s work production and financial health. Whaley (2001) shares that the psychological impact to a victim can result in physical results, such as increased absenteeism, calling in sick, or quitting (turnover). This can cause a significant fiscal impact to an organization. This leads the I/O psychologist to theories for enhancing workplace motivation and dealing with difficult emotions. According to Oliver and Pressey (2005), occupation psychology‘s most consistently supported theory is goal–setting, ―which proposes that specific, difficult goals, when they are accepted by the individual, will lead to effective performance‖ (p. 198). Goal-Setting Theory According to Latham and Locke (2007), the originators of goal-setting theory, ―the theory of goal-setting states that there is a positive linear relationship between a specific high goal and task performance‖ (p. 291). Goal-setting theory overtly communicates that a definite difficult goal will result in increased or better performance than simply suggesting a person ―do their best‖ (Latham & Locke, 2007, p. 291). Latham and Locke also share that establishing a goal will have an effect on satisfaction or a sense of fulfillment as the goal establishes a standard for assessing one‘s performance, and that a more difficult goal will provide an increased positive Workplace Motivation & Addressing Sexual Harassment, 10 significant to organizations as the ability to more consistently predict production and performance of employees who self-regulate towards high-level and difficult goals can translate into more precise hiring practices of employees who may be driven to offer much to an organization. Finally, Hertel, Konradt, and Orlikowski (2004) studied virtual teams, goal-setting theory, task interdependence, and team-based rewards. In this intriguing study, the researchers explored management practices (e.g., high quality goal-setting) as a means of enhancing effectiveness and productivity of virtual teams based on the challenges of reduced connectedness (primary communication and production through electronic means as opposed to physical proximity). Hertel et al. found that the more successful (efficient and productive) teams had goal-setting processes that were of high quality. The researchers acknowledge that goal-setting principles can vary widely among organizations so they utilized a 6-item scale to assess goal conflict, participation, and goal adaptation by team members. This study may directly benefit organizations that use virtual teams towards adopting a workplace motivational theory (goal- setting) that will prove advantageous. Hertel et al. recommends that organizations preserve the psychological connections to employees by ―(1) assuring high quality of goal-setting processes, (2) creating high task interdependence in the beginning of the virtual teamwork, and (3) using team-based rewards to maintain high perceived outcome interdependence within the teams‖ (p. 24). Strengths, Weaknesses, and Usefulness There are apparent strengths to using the goal-setting theory for an organization. The clear-cut application is easy enough for most everyone to understand: Set a goal and consistently communicate that goal to employees for simple and complex tasks. It is more than that however. Workplace Motivation & Addressing Sexual Harassment, 11 Ambrose and Kulik (1999) posit that the integration of personal variables such as self-efficacy, self-esteem, and conscientiousness with goal-setting will be useful in predicting whether goal- setting is likely to be effective for particular individuals (p. 253). Latham and Ernst share that standpoint and also discuss the ability for goal-setting to create a ―strong situation‖ in that individuality disparities among employees will be minimized, ―that is, on tasks that are complex for people, setting a specific high learning goal to discover specific procedures or processes for mastering a task is beneficial regardless of a person's goal orientation‖ (Seijts, Latham, Tasa, & Latham as cited in Latham & Ernst, 2006, p. 188). There are also weaknesses with the goal-setting theory in the workplace. According to research by Ambrose and Kulik (1999), having multiple goals may cause conflict for the individual and result in reduction or sacrifice of performance of one of the goals in order to meet that second goal. This could be perceived as a trade-off between quantity and quality of goals and should be considered by an organization. Further, Latham and Locke (2007) put forth that there may be conflicts found between a team goal and an individual goal, as individuals may decide to pursue a personal goal even if it is damaging to the team‘s performance (e.g., financial reward such as money). Finally, Latham and Locke also shared that in an environment of competitiveness, an individual may withhold their own ideas and knowledge if they perceive that their goal attainment will decrease among the competition and may even impede another‘s goal pursuit to assure their own accomplishment. Goal-setting theory is very useful to an organization for motivating employees and communicating job performance expectations. It can also be used to establish goals related to the working environment (e.g., no safety incidents or a zero tolerance discrimination policy). Attaining these types of goals requires collaboration among the employees. According to Workplace Motivation & Addressing Sexual Harassment, 12 Latham and Locke (2007) this is possible through deliberate framing and perception of the goal. If it is viewed as an overall vision, employees may be more likely to support and cooperate on reaching the goal (Latham & Locke, 2007). Self-Determination Theory Self-determination theory is a relatively new premise in the study of workplace motivation. It has been used more often towards health, school, and relationship aspects but is beginning to be developed in other areas of study. Greguras and Diefendorff (2009) share that self-determination theory (developed by Deci and Ryan) is a motivation theory founded upon the principle that individuals have an innate need to reach their fullest potential. In accordance with self-determination theory, this is accomplished by satisfying three instinctive psychological needs: ―need for autonomy (i.e., need to exercise control over one‘s actions), need for relatedness (i.e., need to feel connected with others), and need for competence (i.e., need to have an effect on one‘s outcomes and surroundings)‖ (Greguras & Diefendorff, 2009, p. 466). This can directly relate to a work environment and workplace motivation, as satisfying the psychological needs of autonomy, relatedness, and competence is often described by employees when discussing their career and professional pursuits although they may not use those words exactly. Thus, based on self-determination theory, work environments that provide conditions which allow for the facilitation of intrinsic motivation and personal growth will realize much more substantial and positive outcomes than a work environment that impedes or prevents an employee‘s inherent motivation and desire for development. Ryan and Deci (2000) communicate that self-determination theory uses long-established empirical methods to study human motivation and personality through an ―organismic metatheory‖ to emphasize the significance of the development of personality and self-regulation Workplace Motivation & Addressing Sexual Harassment, 15 and Diefendorff claim with regards to PE fit that ―much of the theoretical rationale suggests that fit influences outcomes through the fulfillment of needs‖ (p. 465). While there are apparently a variety of different types of PE fit, this study explored person-organization fit (PO fit), person- group fit (PG fit) and job demands-abilities fit (DA fit) along with ―employee affective organizational commitment and overall job performance‖ for insight on self-determination theory relationships (Greguras & Diefendorff, 2009, p. 465). The researchers found that PO fit ―influenced affective commitment both directly and indirectly through autonomy, relatedness, and competence need satisfactions‖ and this may have occurred because if an organization and employee‘s values are in congruence, the employee may feel their basic psychological needs have been met (p. 473). PG fit was found to be connected to ―relatedness need satisfaction such that employees who shared similar values with their coworkers reported liking others, and being liked by others, more than employees who did not share similar values with their coworkers‖ (p. 473). Finally, DA fit was not found to be directly related to autonomy, relatedness, or competence, but the authors theorize that ―when employees perceive that their abilities and skills match the requirements of the job, they feel more competent in performing their jobs, and those who feel more competent perform at higher levels than employees who feel less competent‖ (p. 473). Strengths, Weaknesses, and Usefulness Self-determination theory brings certain strengths towards the study of workplace motivation. For instance, Gagné and Forest (2008) describe how self-determination theory makes a distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: Intrinsic motivation refers to doing an activity for its own sake, because one finds the activity inherently interesting and satisfying. In contrast, extrinsic motivation refers to Workplace Motivation & Addressing Sexual Harassment, 16 doing an activity for an instrumental reason. There are different types of extrinsic motivation that can be relatively controlled by external factors, or that can be relatively autonomous, that is, regulated through a person‘s acquired goals and values. (p. 225) Related to this, Vallerand, Pelletier, and Koestner (2008) speculate that by focusing on self- determination theory and supporting an individual‘s psychological need by providing a supportive and non-controlling environment, a person‘s motivation will be optimized towards a given task. There are also weaknesses noted with the self-determination theory. Deci and Ryan (2000) share that ―a direct corollary of the SDT perspective is that people will tend to pursue goals, domains, and relationships that allow or support their need satisfaction,‖ but the author questions whether other factors affect this (p. 230). For instance, could unhealthy beliefs in relationship expectations prevent an individual from pursuing a need satisfaction, such as relatedness (feeling a connectedness with others)? Greguras and Diefendorff (2009) also point out important questions that have been raised about self-determination theory, such as whether there are really only 3 fundamental psychological needs, and whether not meeting a psychological need could also be beneficial (e.g., an employee not wanting autonomy and instead preferring to be monitored closely). These are important questions that should be explored. Regardless, self-determination theory does appear to be relevant towards an employee‘s attitudes and their behaviors towards work motivation (Greguras & Diefendorff, 2009). Self-determination theory can be quite useful to organizations that have the structure and desire to support it. In self-determination theory, controlling attitudes or behaviors, such as giving feedback that is more directional than simply informational is considered a negative Workplace Motivation & Addressing Sexual Harassment, 17 orientation. From a total organization perspective, self-determination theory may be embraced by a creative or concept-building company, but it might seem quite alien to an assembly factory. Regardless, self-determination theory recognizes there are states such as amotivation which occurs when an individual no longer has the intention to work or function, or they simply go through the motions no longer valuing their activities (Ryan & Deci, 2000). This would be an important realization for a manager so they can take the necessary steps to determine why. Could it be because of self-efficacy and not feeling competent to accomplish a task? Or could it be caused by stresses from external sources (such as being sexually harassed at work)? Highlights of Goal-Setting Theory and Self-Determination Theory Each theory presents an organization with powerful options to promote success and achievement. Interestingly, Landy and Conte (2004) describe four approaches which can be used at work to increase self-efficacy, and the author could categorize each approach as either prescribing to goal-setting theory or self-determination theory. The first approach recommends providing direction (guidance feedback) to the individual to increase the probability they will have success on a difficult task (Landy & Conte, 2004); the author views this as falling under goal-setting theory. The next approach recommends exposing or pairing employees to successful role models (guidance feedback) who have mastered a complex assignment (Landy & Conte, 2004); again, the author views this as goal-setting theory. The third approach recommends being a ―targeted ‗cheerleader‘ emphasizing the individual‘s knowledge and ability‖ (Landy & Conte, 2004, p. 362); the author views this as applying to self-determination theory (competence). The final recommendation is to address any stresses that are not related to the difficult assignment in the workplace environment and reduce them so employees can focus Workplace Motivation & Addressing Sexual Harassment, 20 employee involvement is the next logical step. Another proactive measure an organization can take is to study the organization from different perspectives. For instance, a review of the demographics of the organizational levels (e.g., senior leaders, middle managers, career and entry level employees) may be quite revealing from a diversity and gender role perspective. Is there a certain race or gender evident for any organizational level? An organization can then use the survey data and demographic study to conduct a broad intersectional analysis concerning representation and perceptions of treatment. Hall (1999) shares that studying these areas can give insight into promotions and attrition as well as treatment issues of sexual harassment, allowing for a larger outlook of an organization. Conclusion Organizations may require the expertise of an industrial organizational psychologist to assist with a situation regarding emotionally charged content, such as sexual harassment, and concern for the continued motivation of its employees. The I/O psychologist is aware that the entire organization is vulnerable to a weakened human relations climate, which is a main point of focus. Workplace motivation theories will be explored to see whether their use can be leveraged to strengthen the organization. Approaches to dealing with difficult emotions and addressing sexual harassment issues can be addressed simultaneously. This paper explored goal-setting theory and self-determination theory sharing the differences and similarities as well as strengths, weaknesses and best practices. Finally, suggestions that go beyond the theories were provided. The workplace motivation path an organization chooses may allow for great success, mediocre accomplishments, or no success. Karseras (2005) shares that quality relationships between managers and team members, with specific regards to conflict resolution, are the real key. If managers are not motivated, not trained appropriately, or not aware of the benefits of Workplace Motivation & Addressing Sexual Harassment, 21 establishing relationships with employees, they will find themselves quite busy trying to make things work, as opposed to simply working. Workplace Motivation & Addressing Sexual Harassment, 22 References Ambrose, M., & Kulik, C. (1999). Old friends, new faces: Motivation research in the 1990s. Journal of Management, 25, 231-292. 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