Essay Writing: Techniques for Intro, Body, Conclusion, Process, Cause/Effect, Comparison, Study notes of English Philology

Download Essay Writing: Techniques for Intro, Body, Conclusion, Process, Cause/Effect, Comparison and more Study notes English Philology in PDF only on Docsity! Writing IV Titik Sudartinah, S.S. ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT LANGUAGES AND ARTS FACULTY YOGYAKARTA STATE UNIVERSITY 2009 ii Introduction Writing IV is a compulsory course for fourth semester students of the English Education Department. Its main discussion is on how to write essays. To be an additional resource and activity book for Writing IV course is the aim of developing this module. It comprises several subtopics under the main discussion, writing essays, from the preparation to the writing activities. This module consists of 7 units. Unit 1 introduces the definition of the term essay, its basic structure, and the steps to writing it. Unit 2 is the advancement of the materials discussed in Unit 1. It focuses on how to choose the appropriate topic of an essay as well as how to mindmap ideas to have a perfect topic that is not too general or too narrow. Unit 3 presents the reason and the importance of making an outline before really writing the essay. The next unit, Unit 4, discusses the techniques of writing the introductory, body, and concluding paragraphs. Unit 5, 6, and 7 discuss three kinds of essay – process, cause/effect, and comparison/contrast – and some writing techniques for each of the types. This module is by no means comprehensive. It is meant to serve as a guideline for the scope of topics required in Writing IV. It is therefore recommended that instructors provide supplementary material for the use of the forms and expressions in the module. 2 point in a thesis statement. The body consists of several supporting paragraphs that develop the main idea. The essay ends with a conclusion that summarizes the main points. 3 Task 1 Read the following five-paragraph essay that a student wrote about the impact of John Lennon’s music. Notice that the first line of each new paragraph is indented. After you have read the entire essay, label the parts on the lines provided. 4 Task 2 This text is difficult but the title gives a clue to the problem to be presented and solved in the text. Identify the structure of the text and extract the relevant information from the text in oder to write your own short text on the topic “What makes it possible for koalas to digest eucalyptus leaves?”. 7 Task 3 Discuss with a partner the ten steps to writing an essay on the previous page. Brainstorm some ideas concerning on how to choose a good topic to be developed as an essay. Write the results of the discussion on the space provided. _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ 8 If the topic of an essay has not been given, the whole world lies before the writer. Sometimes that seems to make the task of starting even more intimidating. Actually, this means that the writer is free to choose a topic of interest, which will often make the essay a stronger one. There are some steps to choose a good topic to write published in http://lklivingston.tripod.com/essay/topic.html. They are: 1. Define the Purpose The first thing an essay writer must do is think about the purpose of the essay. Is it to persuade people to believe something, to explain to people how to complete a particular task, to educate people about some person, place, thing or idea, or something else entirely? Whatever topic chosen must fit that purpose. 2. Brainstorm Subjects of Interest Once the purpose of the essay has been determined, write down some subjects that are interesting. No matter what the purpose of the essay is, an endless number of topics will be suitable. If there is any trouble concerning with the subjects, start by looking around. Is there anything in the surroundings that is interesting? That might make for a good topic. Don't evaluate the subjects yet; just write down anything that springs to mind. 3. Evaluate Each Potential Topic If there are already a few topics that would be appropriate, consider each one individually. If the essay is to educate, the writer shall be particularly well-informed. If it is to persuade, the writer shall be at UNIT 2 Choosing a Topic to Write 9 least moderately passionate. Of course, the most important factor in choosing a topic is the number of ideas discovered within a certain topic. Even if none of the subjects seem particularly appealing, try just choosing one to work with. It may turn out to be a better topic than what is thought. Before starting to write the essay, look one more time at the selected topic. Think about the type of paper to be produced. Should it be a general overview, or a specific analysis of the topic? If it should be an overview, then it is probable to move to the next step. If it should be a specific analysis, make sure the topic is fairly specific. If it is too general, choose a narrower subtopic to discuss. For example, the topic "KENYA" is a general one. If the objective is to write an overview, this topic is suitable. If the objective is to write a specific analysis, this topic is too general. Narrow it to something like "Politics in Kenya" or "Kenya's Culture." Task 1 Identify the topic of the following texts. Write it on the space below each text. 1. British cuisine has always been multicultural, a pot pourri of eclectic styles. In ancient times influenced by the Romans and in medieval times the French. When the Frankish Normans invaded, they brought with them the spices of the east: cinnamon, saffron, mace, nutmeg, pepper, ginger. Sugar came to England at that time, and was considered a spice – rare and expensive. Before the arrival of cane sugars, honey and fruit juices were the only sweeteners. The few Medieval cookery books that remain record dishes that use every spice in the larder, and chefs across Europe saw their task to be the almost alchemical transformation of raw ingredients into something entirely new (for centuries the English aristocracy ate French food) which they felt distinguished them from the peasants. ____________________________________________________________________________________ 12 Examples of Mindmapping Ideas Figure 1. A mindmap of question Figure 1. A mindmap of the life of Marie Curie 13 Why Making an Outline After a topic has been determined, it is the time to start the essay- writing process. Before really starting to write the content of the essay, an outline is needed. An outline is a general plan of what is going to be written. Making an outline is similar to drawing plans to build a house. Before one begins to build a house, it is best to draw up plans to make sure that a house is built in the way the owner wants. The same is true with writing an essay and making an outline. There are at least two reasons why making an outline is helpful in writing an essay: 1. An outline will help make an essay more organized. A careful plan will help the body paragraphs stay focused on the ideas in the thesis statement. 2. An outline saves time for writers. Preparing an outline can take time, but when a writer has finished doing this, s/he will be able to write the rough draft of the essay more quickly than if there is no outline. The Steps of Making an Outline The purpose of an outline or diagram is to put ideas about the topic on paper, in a moderately organized format. The structure created may still change before the essay is complete. Decide whether to use the cut-and-dried structure of an outline or a more flowing structure. If one is decided and felt to be not appropriate, then a writer can easily switch to the other form. UNIT 3 Outlining and Drafting 14 In a formal outline, Roman numerals can be used to represent paragraphs. Capital letters can be used to represent supporting details for the paragraphs. This is how to make an outline: 1. Begin the outline by writing the topic at the top of the page. 2. Next, write the Roman numerals I, II, and III, spread apart down the left side of the page. 3. Next to each Roman numeral, write the main ideas about the topic, or the main points to be made. o If the essay is to persuade, be sure to write the best arguments. o If it is to explain a process, write the steps that should be followed. Group these into categories: Beginning, Middle, and End. o If it is to inform, write the major categories into which the information can be divided. 4. Under each Roman numeral, write A, B, and C down the left side of the page. 5. Now there is the basic structure for the essay. This is how the outline looks: 17 Task 1 Look at the thesis statements below. If you think the thesis statement is good, write G next to the statement on the line. If you do not think the thesis statement is good, write a thesis statement that is more appropriate on the lines below. Be prepared to explain why you think certain thesis statements were acceptable or not acceptable. 1. _____ I’m going to tell you why I think owning a gun should be illegal in the United States. New Thesis Statement? _______________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 2. _____ How to make my favorite Chinese dish. New Thesis Statement? _______________________________________ _________________________________________ 3. _____ The current crisis in Israel has not only caused strife between Israelis and Palestinians, but also between other nations in the middle east. New Thesis Statement? _______________________________________ _________________________________________ 4. _____ The cafeteria at this college is bad. New Thesis Statement? _______________________________________ _________________________________________ 5. _____ Employers look for employees who can take initiative, manage their time, and make good decisions. New Thesis Statement? _______________________________________ _________________________________________ 18 Task 2 Choose one of the topics in Unit 2 Task 2 that you consider as the most interesting one. Use it as the topic of the essay you are going to develop. Write the thesis statement on the space below. Topic: _________________________________________________________________________________ Thesis statement: ____________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ Task 3 Look at the essay below. Read it and pay careful attention to how it is organized. Complete the outline for the essay on the following pages. Learning to Listen in English As a newcomer to the United States, have you ever had a difficult time understanding normal spoken English on TV, at work, or in school? If you have, you are not alone. Many beginning students of English have a difficult time learning to listen in English. Listening can actually be one of the more difficult language skills to master, but there are a number of strategies that can help you comprehend spoken English better. These strategies could be broken down into pre-, while-, and post-listening strategies. The process of preparing yourself to listen to a TV program or classroom lecture is sometimes just as important as the actual practice of listening. If you know that a lecture or TV program is going to be on a particular subject, you can practice the strategy of predicting. Predicting is when you try to guess what you will hear before you actually hear it. If you think about a subject before you listen and predict what is going to be said, you will understand more of the lecture or TV program as you listen. Try asking yourself these questions before listening: What is the topic? What do I already know about the topic? What do I need to know before I listen? What can I predict will be said? An excellent while-listening strategy is the practice of making guesses about what you hear. Oftentimes, people do not need to understand or hear every word of a lecture, conversation, or TV show to understand the main idea of what is being said. Some ways 19 of making good guesses in listening is to first pay attention to the speakers’ gestures and facial expressions. These things can often communicate more than the words people say. To practice this strategy, try listening to a video without sound. Pay careful attention to the speakers’ gestures and facial expressions. As you watch, try guessing what the speakers are saying. When you are finished watching, rewind the tape to see if your guesses are correct. You will probably be surprised at how much you were able to understand just by guessing! An important post-listening strategy that will help you become a better listener is evaluating. You need to check to see if you what you understood from the TV program, lecture, or conversation is correct. To do this, you can ask a classmate or co- worker to summarize what you just heard. By doing this, you will be able to determine whether or not you are making progress in your listening skills or if you need to adjust your goals and expectations. Learning to comprehend normal spoken English can sometimes be a difficult and frustrating experience for many beginning English language learners. However, the strategies of predicting, guessing, and evaluating can help lessen some of the frustration. Try these strategies today and see if you notice an improvement in your listening skills. Introduction Thesis Statement: ____________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ II. Body Paragraph One Topic Sentence: ______________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ Supporting Ideas or Examples: A. B. C. D. 22 _________________________________________________________________________________________ Detail 1 : ___________________________________________________________________________ Detail 2 : ___________________________________________________________________________ Detail 3 : ___________________________________________________________________________ V. CONCLUSION: Reconfirmed Thesis: _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ Clincher: ______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ 23 A. The Introduction Most formal essays begin with an introductory paragraph. In some ways, the introduction is the most important paragraph of an essay. Because it is the first one that will be read, it must capture the attention of the audience and create a desire to read the rest of the essay. It should set the stage for what follows and give the reader an idea of what to expect. While there are no set rules for writing an introduction and a writer is encouraged to be creative, there are several techniques that have proven successful. Many introductions use one or a combination of the following techniques to provide background information and capture the reader’s interest. 1. Move from general to specific This type of introduction opens with a general statement on the subject that establishes its importance and then leads the reader to the more specific thesis statement. 2. Use an anecdote Another way to write an introduction is to relate an interesting story that will get the reader interested in the subject. Newspaper and magazine writers frequently use this technique for their articles. The function of the introduction is to provide background information to capture the reader’s interest to state the thesis UNIT 4 Writing Introductory, Body, and Concluding Paragraphs 24 3. Use a quotation A quotation is an easy way to introduce the topic. A writer can quote an authority on the subject or use an interesting quotation from an article. S/he can also be more informal and use a proverb or favorite saying of a friend or relative. 4. Ask a question Asking one or more questions at the beginning of an essay is a good way to engage the readers in the topic right away. They will want to read on in order to find the answers to the questions. 5. Present facts and statistics Presenting some interesting facts or statistics on the subject establishes credibility. Task 1 Analyzing Introductions Read the following sample introductions. Then, in small groups, identify the technique or techniques used in each one. Remember that authors often use a combination of techniques to write an introduction. 27 4. Read your introduction to the class. Listen to other students’ introductions for comparison. Write the introduction here. _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ B. The Body The body of an essay consists of several paragraphs that develop and support the thesis. Each body paragraph develops one point from the thesis statement. These paragraphs all begin with a topic sentence that is supported with specific details, facts, and examples. The body paragraphs of an essay should be arranged in the order that was stated in the thesis statement. Task 4 Analyzing Body Paragraphs Look again at the essay John Lennon: A Musician for All Time in Unit 1. Write the thesis statements here. _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ 28 What is the topic of the first body paragraph? _________________________________________________________________________________________ Does the topic sentence of that paragraph state its main idea? _________________________________________________________________________________________ Does it develop the first point mentioned in the thesis statement? _________________________________________________________________________________________ Is it supported with specific details? _________________________________________________________________________________________ What is the topic of the second body paragraph? _________________________________________________________________________________________ Does the topic sentence of that paragraph state its main idea? _________________________________________________________________________________________ Does it develop the second point mentioned in the thesis statement? _________________________________________________________________________________________ Is it supported with specific details? _________________________________________________________________________________________ What is the topic of the third body paragraph? _________________________________________________________________________________________ Does the topic sentence of that paragraph state its main idea? _________________________________________________________________________________________ Does it develop the third point mentioned in the thesis statement? _________________________________________________________________________________________ Is it supported with specific details? _________________________________________________________________________________________ Task 5 Writing Body Paragraphs Reread the introduction you wrote on the pressures of being a student. Based on your thesis statement, determine the topic and order of each of the three 29 body paragraphs. Write a topic sentence for each body paragraph on the lines provided below. Topic sentence for first body paragraph: _________________________________________________________________________________________ Topic sentence for second body paragraph: _________________________________________________________________________________________ Topic sentence for third body paragraph: _________________________________________________________________________________________ On a separate piece of paper, write a first draft of the body paragraphs for the essay on the pressures of being a student. Follow the principles you learned for writing effective paragraphs. Use the topic sentences you just wrote for each of the three body paragraphs and support them with specific details. Finding Three Points to Develop a Subject It is sometimes difficult to think of three main points for the body paragraphs. However, there are a number of common ways to divide a general subject into three parts. For example, if the general subject is the effects of computers, there are several possible ways to divide it. One might think about time and describe the effects of computers in the past, present, and future. One might also consider people and write about the effects on children, adults, and the elderly. The following table provides additional suggestions for how to divide a broad subject. Place People 1. local, national, international 2. home, work, school 3. land, sea, air 1. students, workers, retired people 2. family, friends, co-workers 3. children, adults, the elderly Time Society 1. past, present, future 2. childhood, adulthood, old age 1. economic, political, social/ educational/religious 2. business, science, the arts 32 Task 7 Analyzing Conclusions Read the following sample conclusions. In small groups, identify the technique or techniques used in each one. 33 Task 8 Look through several newspapers and magazines for interesting articles. Cut out three examples each of introductory and concluding paragraphs and bring them to class. In small groups, discuss what makes each paragraph effective or ineffective as an introduction or a conclusion. What techniques did the writers use? Task 9 Writing Conclusions Reread the introduction and body paragraphs you wrotte on the pressures of being a student. Write the conclusion to this essay on the lines below. Use some of the transition signals. _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ 34 Task 10 37 Task 2 Now look at the figure below. Choose one item in it as the topic of the essay. Then, develop it into three main points to be developed in the body paragraphs of the essay. 38 Write the topic and the three main points here. Topic of the essay: _________________________________________________________________________________________ Topic sentence for the body paragraphs: 1. ____________________________________________________________________________________ 2. ____________________________________________________________________________________ 3. ____________________________________________________________________________________ Task 3 Write a thesis statement for a process essay on each of the following topics. Use a variety of sentence patterns. 1. How to Impress Your Teacher ____________________________________________________________________________________ 2. How to Build a Tree House ____________________________________________________________________________________ 3. How to Make a Pizza ____________________________________________________________________________________ 4. The Best Way to Lose Weight ____________________________________________________________________________________ 5. How to Make a Beautiful Flower Arrangement ____________________________________________________________________________________ 39 Task 4 Writing a Process Paragraph Read the following conversation between a student and a librarian. 42 Discuss the following questions with a partner. 1. What technique does the author use to introduce the topic? 2. What process is the author describing? 3. How does the author organize the information? 4. Make a list of the steps in the process. 5. What transition words did the author use to achieve coherence? Underline them in the essay. 6. What audience do you think the author had in mind when he wrote this essay? The guidelines below will help remembering what to do in each part of a process essay. Basic Essay Plan: Process Introduction 1. State what the process is and why it is important. 2. Define the process. 3. State the purpose for explaining the process. 4. List any equipment, ingredients, or supplies needed to perform the process. Supporting Paragraphs 1. Describe the steps in the process, using time order. 2. If there are a lot of steps, group them into several main categories. Conclusion 1. Review why the process is important. 2. Summarize the main steps in the process. 43 Task 7 Writing a Process Essay In this activity, you will practice writing an essay that describes the steps in a process. Follow these steps: a. Prewriting Choose one of the following topics and make a list of the steps in the process on the space provided. 1. How to get a date with someone who doesn’t like you 2. How to study for an exam 3. How to break up with your boyfriend or girlfriend 4. How to drive your teacher crazy 5. How to get fired from your job List the steps here. ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ b. Planning Organize your list according to time order in the space below. On a separate piece of paper, prepare an informal outline of the essay. ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ c. Drafting On a separate piece of paper, write the first draft of your essay. Be sure to provide some background information about the process in the introduction and include a clear thesis statement or purpose. Describe 44 the steps in the supporting paragraphs and organize them according to time order. End with a conclusion that summarizes the steps and restate the purpose. d. Personal revising Put your essay away for at least one day. Be sure that all paragraphs are unified and coherent. Also, check to make sure you have adequately described each step in the process. Write or type a revised version of your essay. e. Peer revising Exchange your draft with a classmate. Use the following guide to help improve your partner’s essay: 1. What are the strengths of the essay? 2. Did the introduction identify the process and state why it is important? 3. What weaknesses, if any, did you notice in the organization? 4. What suggestions can you offer to improve the organization? 5. Did the author include enough transitions to guide you from one step to the next? 6. Was each step in the process adequately explained? 7. Did the author include an effective conclusion? If not, how can it be improved? Incorporate any suggestions your partner has made that you agree with. f. Editing Correct all the grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling errors before you copy it over or type it. 47 There are some expressions that signal the relationship between cause and effect. Some of them are presented in the following. Table 1. Some transition signals indicating a cause-effect relationship as a result since because due to therefore consequently Thus then as a consequence for this reason So and that is why Task 1 Write a thesis statement for each of the following essay topics in the space provided. Use a variety of sentence patterns in Table 1. 1. The effects of unemployment ___________________________________________________________ 2. The causes of the depletion of the ozone layer ___________________________________________________________ 3. The reasons you decided to learn English ___________________________________________________________ 4. The effects of forest fires ___________________________________________________________ 5. The effects of culture shock ___________________________________________________________ 48 Task 2 Analyzing a Cause/Effect Essay Read the essay and answer the questions that follow. 49 Answer the following questions with a partner: 1. What three main causes does the author suggest to explain the extinction of the dinosaurs? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 2. How are the supporting paragraphs organized? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 3. What techniques are used in the introduction and conclusion? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 4. What transitions did the author use to achieve coherence? Underline them in the essay. The guidelines below show what to be remembered when writing a cause or effect essay. Basic Essay Plan: Cause/Effect Introduction 1. Provide background information about the situation analyzed. 2. Describe the situation. 3. Identify its main causes or effects. Supporting Paragraphs 1. Explain one cause or effect in each supporting paragraph. 2. If there are many causes or effect, group them into several main categories. 3. Organize the causes or effects, using time order or order of importance. Conclusion 1. Summarize the main causes or effects. 2. Draw a conclusion or make a prediction. 52 have provided enough support to fully describe each effect. Write or type a revised version of your essay. e. Peer revising Exchange drafts with a classmate for further suggestions for improvement. Read your partner’s essay and think about its strengths and weaknesses. The following suggestions will help you: 1. Does the introduction provide enough background information to get you interested in the topic? If it does not, offer some suggestions on how to improve it. 2. Check for the effectiveness of the overall organization of the essay. Make sure that the paragraphs are arranged in a logical order. If they are not, help your partner rearrange them. 3. Evaluate the body paragraphs for support, coherence, and unity. If you notice any problems, suggest some specific ways to revise the paragraphs. 4. Review the conclusion and offer some suggestions for improvement if needed. Incorporate any suggestions your partner has made that you agree with. f. Editing Correct all the grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling errors before you copy it over or type it. Task 5 On Your Own Choose one of the following general subjects and brainstorm a list of its causes or effects. Using the ideas generated form your list, write an essay of causes or effects. 1. Water or air pollution 2. Unemployment 3. War 4. An important historical event in your country 53 Task 6 54 Very often in writing, ideas, people, or things are compared to look for their similarities or contrasted to look for their differences. It is important that the things being compared or contrasted belong to the same general class. For example, it is illogical to compare or contrast a house and a dog. Instead, the comparison or contrast of a Japanese house and a North American house is preferable. In academic writing, comparison and contrast are often used to support a point of persuade the reader. For example, in a political science class, there might be a comparison and contrast of two leaders to show which one was more successful at bringing about economic reforms. In a literature class, students might compare and contrast two short stories to show which one is better. In an engineering class, there might be a comparison and contrast of two methods of combustion to show which one is more efficient. UNIT 7 Comparison and Contrast Essay 57 Task 2 Writing a Comparison Paragraph 58 Methods of Organization for Comparison and Contrast There are two basic patterns for writing a comparison/contrast essay: the block method and the point-by-point method. In the block method, all similarities are described in the first body paragraph and then all the differences in the second body paragraph. In the point-by-point method, several important points to be compared and contrasted are identified. In the first body paragraph, the two things according to the first point are compared and contrasted. In the second body paragraph, the two things according to the second point are compared and contrasted, and so on. Most students find the block method easier to master. Task 3 Analyzing Essays of Comparison and Contrast Read the following essay and answer the questions. The purpose of the essay is to explain why a student chose to attend Greenwell University rather than State University. 59 Answer the following questions with a partner. 1. What method did the author of this essay use? 2. What is the thesis statement? 3. What is the topic sentence of the first body paragraph? 4. What similarities between the two schools does the author mention? 5. What is the topic sentence of the second body paragraph? 6. What differences between the two schools does the author mention? 62 e. Peer revising Exchange drafts with a classmate for suggestions on how to improve your essay. Use the following questions as a guide: 1. Did the introduction identify the two items being compared? 2. Is the purpose of the comparison clearly stated? 3. Did the introduction make you want to read the rest of the essay? Why or why not? 4. Did the author adequately develop the points of comparison in a unified paragraph? If not, offer suggestions for strengthening the paragraph. 5. Did the author adequately develop the points of contrast in another unified paragraph? If not, offer suggestions for strengthening the paragraph. 6. Did the author include an effective conclusion? Incorporate any suggestions your partener has made that you agree with. f. Editing Correct all the grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling errors before you copy it over or type it. 63 References Blanchard, Karen & Christine Root. 1997. Ready to Write More . New York: Longman. Hamp-Lyons, Liz & Ben Heasley. 1993. Study Writing . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hedge, Tricia. 1989. Writing . Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hornby, A.S. 1987. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Livingston, Kathy. Guide to Writing a Basic Essay. <http://lklivingston.tripod.com/essay/topic.html>. Accessed on October 20, 2009. Oshima, Alice and Ann Hogue. 1997. Introduction to Academic Writing . New York: Longman. Slade, Carole. 1997. Form and Style. Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Co.