Applied Linguistics: Origin, History, and Approaches, Apuntes de Idioma Inglés

¡Descarga Applied Linguistics: Origin, History, and Approaches y más Apuntes en PDF de Idioma Inglés solo en Docsity! UNIT  1   Applied  Linguis-cs  and   Second  Language  Acquisi-on   INTRODUCTION   APPLIED LINGUISTICS solidified erenacpoloY emneqñarroyjy investigates lied MSsaale<tablish What  type  of  linguistics  is  Applied   Linguistics?     Driven  by  real  world  problems,  rather  than  theoretical   explorations:     v  Importance  of  needs  analyses  in  different  local  contexts   v  Need  to  see  language  as  functional  and  discourse-­‐based   v  No  one  discipline  can  provide  all  the  tools  needed  to  address  real-­‐ world  problems   v  Apply  a  wide  array  of  research  tools  and  methods  to  address   locally  situated  language  problems         APPLIED  LINGUISTICS   ORIGIN  and  HISTORY  (I)   Schmi/,  N.  and  M.  Celce-­‐Murcia  (2002).  An  Overview  of  Applied  LinguisOcs.  In  N.  Schmi/   (ed.),  An  IntroducOon  to  Applied  LinguisOcs.     •  Renaissance:  formal  study  of  the  grammars  of  Greek  and  Latin.   –  Latin  disappears  as  a  lingua  franca   •  XVIIth  century:  national  European  languages  learnt  inductively   •  XVIIIth:  prescriptive  rules  taken  from  latin   •  XIXth  century:   –  Grammar-­‐Translation  Method   –  Direct  Method  (no  use  of  the  L1)       APPLIED  LINGUISTICS   ORIGIN  and  HISTORY  (II)   Schmi/,  N.  and  M.  Celce-­‐Murcia  (2002).  An  Overview  of  Applied  LinguisOcs.  In  N.  Schmi/   (ed.),  An  IntroducOon  to  Applied  LinguisOcs.     The  1940s   •  Structuralism/Behaviourism  (Audiolingualism)   •  1946  Applied  Linguistics  an  independent  subject  in  the  U.  Michigan:  language   descriptions  for  design  of  educational  materials.   •  1948  Language  Learning:  Journal  of  AL   The  1950s   •  Insights  of  structural  and  functional  linguists  applied  to  second  language   teaching  and,  in  some  cases,  to  ]irst  language  literacy.     The  1960s   •  Chomsky:  Language  and  the  Mind   •  Application  of  linguistics  to  language  teaching  but  also  assessment,  language   policies  and  the  new  ]ield  of  SLA,  focusing  on  learning  rather  than   teaching   •  1964  AILA  First  International  Conference   APPLIED  LINGUISTICS   ORIGIN  and  HISTORY  (V)   Schmi/,  N.  and  M.  Celce-­‐Murcia  (2002).  An  Overview  of  Applied  LinguisOcs.  In  N.   Schmi/  (ed.),  An  IntroducOon  to  Applied  LinguisOcs.     The  1990s     •  AL  draws  on  many  supporting  disciplines  (psychology,  education,   sociology,  anthropology,  political  science,  …)   •  On  the  scope  of  Linguistics:  a  new  paradigm  “in  the  last  20  years,  from  I-­‐L   to  E-­‐L,  that  is  from  Ideal  language  as  an  abstract  linguistic  construct  to   real  language  as  actually  experienced  by  its  users”  à  democratisation  of   the  discipline.     •  Language  teaching  and  learning:  language  awareness,  focus  on  form,   patterns  of  classroom  interaction,  task-­‐based  learning,  content-­‐based   learning,  action  research.   •  Critical  studies   •  Genre  and  Register   •  Corpus  Linguistics   •  Bilingualism  and  Multilingualism   •  Language  testing  and  assessment   APPLIED  LINGUISTICS   ORIGIN  and  HISTORY  (VI)   The  2000s   •  New  ]ields:   –  English  as  a  lingua  franca   –  Sociolinguistics:  multilingualism,  identity,  language  policy   –  Content  and  Language  Integrated  Learning  (CLIL)   –  SLA:  a  movement  away  from  “the  ideal  monolingual   speaker”                     APPLIED  LINGUISTICS   APPROACHES  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGE     •  1.  The  linguistic  approach:  “linguistic  linguistics”  (theoretical   linguistics),  the  study  of  language  “for  its  own  sake”  àsystem.       –  Data:  texts  or  utterances  independent  from  context  and  from  individuals   àdisconnect  from  man  and  society.   –  1940s  Structuralism   –  1960s  Generative  Linguistics   •  Formal  grammar:  concerned  with  forms   •  Problems:  competence  separate  from  performance,  notion  of   idealised  speaker,  genetic  (non)  explanation  for  LA,  minimal  interface   with  real-­‐world  uses     APPLIED  LINGUISTICS:  RESEARCH  AREAS   I.  SECOND  LANGUAGE  ACQUISITION/LEARNING     –  acquisition  theories   –  grammar  acquisition   –  the  acquisition  of  skills   –  acquisition  and  interaction   –  cross-­‐linguistic  in]luence   –  individual  factors  in  SLL   APPLIED  LINGUISTICS:  RESEARCH  AREAS   II.  SECOND  LANGUAGE  TEACHING   ‒  Pedagogy:  methods  and  procedures   ‒  The  teaching  and  learning  of  phonetics,  grammatical  system,   vocabulary  skills,  pragmatic  skills   ‒  Learning  strategies   ‒  The  learner   ‒  The  teacher       III.  CURRICULUM  DESIGN  (L1  AND  L2)   ‒  Learning  theory  and  linguistic  theory   ‒  The  learner   ‒  The  contents   ‒  The  materials   ‒  The  methods   APPLIED  LINGUISTICS:  RESEARCH  AREAS   IV.  INSTRUCTIONAL  CONTEXTS  (L1  &  L2)   ‒  Literacy  (L1,  L2)   ‒  Spoken  Language   ‒  L1  acquisition  &  education   ‒  Registers  and  language  for  speci]ic  purposes  (LSP)     ‒  Language  Assessment   ‒  discrete  point  tests   ‒  holistic  testing   ‒  alternative  assessment  (based  on  activities  with  authentic  communicative  function)   ‒  writing  samples   ‒  learning  logs  or  journals   ‒  classroom  projects   ‒  interviews     ‒  think-­‐alouds   ‒  checklists   ‒  CLIL  (Content  and  Language  Integrated  Learning)   APPLIED  LINGUISTICS:  RESEARCH  AREAS   XI.  PHONETICS  AND  PHONOLOGY   ‒  Language  teaching   ‒  Naturally-­‐occurring  discourse   ‒  Language  varieties:  accents   ‒  Non-­‐native  varieties     XII.  CLINICAL  LINGUISTICS   ‒  Speech  therapy   ‒  Language  impairment  (brain  damages)   ‒  Deaf  education   ‒  Language  pathologies:  aphasics,  autistic     XIII.  LEXICOGRAPHY     XIV.  FORENSIC  LINGUISTICS     XV.  AUTHORSHIP  IDENTIFICATION   Applied  Linguistics  =  Language  Learning   and  Teaching     •  1.  AL  emerged  as  a  scienti_ic  area  due  to  the  growing  interest  in   teaching  and  learning  second  languages.   •  2.  Moreover,  the  desire  of  many  teachers  à  professional        “There  has  been  a  growing  awareness  over  the  last  three  or  four  decades   of  the  enormous  complexity  of  language  teaching  leading  to  the  conviction   that  if  language  teaching  is  to  be  a  truly  professional  enterprise  it  must   deal  with  the  various  aspects  involved  in  a  scholarly  and  scienti]ic  manner   and  establish  a  sound  theoretical  framework”  (Corder,  1973).     •  3.  Learning  an  added  language  à  a  compulsory  subject  in  most  of  the   World  Systems  of  Education     Applied  Linguistics  =  Language  Learning   and  Teaching   •  4.  A  second  language  functions  as  a  lingua  franca,    for  communication   in  diverse  contexts.     –  Cook  (1996:134)  reports  ]igures  of  second  language  learners  in   Europe  where  in  1987  83%  of  20-­‐24-­‐year-­‐olds  has  studied  a   second  language.     –  In  Spain  close  to  a  hundred  per  cent  of  the  population  has   studied  English  as  a  Foreign  Language  at  school.  Only  in  Madrid,   more  than  250  state  schools  teach  two  or  more  subjects  in   English.   –  Crystal  (1995:108)  tells  us  that  English  is  the  main  second   language  being  studied  in  the  world  today  with  an  estimated   235  million  L2.       FIRST  STEPS  TOWARDS  SLA  (<  1970S)     ‒  Before  1960s:  pedagogical  approaches  to  L2   ‒  1960s:  SLA  as  a  ]ield  of  systematic  study   ‒  Structuralist  linguistics:  describing  and  comparing  languages   ‒  Behaviourism:  habit  formation  (Stimulus-­‐Response-­‐Reinforcement)   ‒  1950s  &  1960s:  Contrastive  Analysis   ‒  differences  between  L1  &  L2  are  responsible  for  learning  dif]iculties         However…     1.  L2  learners  produce  language  that  is  different  from  what  the   target  input  in  their  surrounding  environment  (classroom  or   wider  society)  looks  like.   2.  their  productions  are  also  different  from  the  grammatical   structures  available  in  their  9irst  language   LEARNER  LANGUAGE     ‒  1970s:  shift  from  structuralism/behaviourism  to  cognitivism/ mentalism:    a  better  understanding  of  how  L2  acquisition  works  rests  not  with    external,  formal  language  comparisons,  but  with  learners’  internal,    psychological  representations   ‒  Analysis  of  actual  learner  language   ‒  Interlanguage:  the  language  system  that  each  learner  constructs  at  any  given   point  in  development;  considered  a  natural  language  characterized  by  internal   consistency  and  systematicity.   ‒  Error  Analysis:  to  gain  insight  into  the  processes  of  second  language  learning   and  the  development  of  the  interlanguage:    errors  are  the  result  of  universally  developmental  stages  that  all    learners  (independent  of  L1  background)  go  through  on  the  way  to  L2   UNIVERSAL  GRAMMAR  (UG)     ‒  Early  1980s:  Chomskyan  linguistics   ‒  many  of  the  same  developmental  stages  in  L2  learning  had  already   been  attested  in  the  L1  speech  of  young  children      =>  Universal  Grammar:   I.  humans  are  biologically  born  with  the  innate  basics  of   grammar  knowledge  prior  to  any  experiences  with  language   II.  this  linguistic  knowledge  is  situated  in  a  language  module  in   the  brain  which  is  separate  from  other  brain  functions   ‒  ‘Linguistic  competence’  based  on  ‘parameters’   ‒  However…  ‘communicative  competence’  (Dell  Hymes)   THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  PERSPECTIVE     Age     Brain  plasticity  –  learning  capacity   Not  analytical  –  analytic  ability   Fewer  inhibitions  –  pragmatic  skills   Simpli]ied  input  –  real-­‐world  knowledge   The  Critical  &  Sensitive  Period  Hypotheses     Motivation     interest   usefulness               Learning  styles  and  personality     Introverted  –  extraverted   Re]lective  –  communicative   Concern  for  form  –  meaning         Aptitude     Phonemic  coding  ability   Inductive  learning  ability   Grammatical  sensitivity   Associative  memory  capacity   THE  SOCIAL  PERSPECTIVE     Languages  are  almost  always  learnt  in  and  for  interaction  with  other  people     1970s:  Input  Hypothesis  (Stephen  Krashen)     ‒  i+1   ‒  Comprehensible  input   ‒  meaning  leads  to  structure     1980s:  Interaction  Hypothesis  (Michael  Long)     ‒  Input  is  not  enough   ‒  interactionally  modi]ied  input   ‒  negotiation  of  meaning     mid-­‐1980s:  Output  Hypothesis  (Merrill  Swain)     ‒  learners  need  to  be  pushed  to  produce   ‒  pay  attention  to  the  means  of  expression   LANGUAGE  TEACHING  METHODS   II.  DIRECT  METHOD  (END  19TH  C.  –  START  20TH  C.)     i.  Linguistic  background   ‒  Studying  FL  in  itself   ‒  Basis:  spoken  language   ‒  Language  pro]iciency  =  knowledge  of  the  target  language     ii.  Learning  theoretical  basis   ‒  Inductive  or  ‘natural’  method     iii.  How/what?   ‒  Precursor  of  the  ‘pattern  drill’     ‒  Pronunciation  exercises   ‒  Teaching  takes  place  only  in  the  target  language  (no  use  of  L1!)   ‒  Usually  private  language  schools     LANGUAGE  TEACHING  METHODS   III.  AUDIOLINGUAL  METHOD  (1930S  –  1970S)     i.  Linguistic  background   ‒  Structuralism  &  behaviourism  (USA)   ‒  Basis:  spoken  language   ‒  Language  pro]iciency  =  imitating  the  target  language     ii.  Learning  theoretical  basis   ‒  Behaviourist  /  inductive   ‒  language  learning  =  learning  ‘speaking  habits’   ‒  First  listening/speaking,  then  reading  /writing     iii.  How/what?   ‒  Pattern  drills  and  repetition  (in  ‘language  laboratories’)   ‒  Oral  exercises  on  the  basis  of  sentence  patterns   ‒  Ideal  teacher  =  native  speaker   ‒  No  grammar  rules   LANGUAGE  TEACHING  METHODS   IV.  ALTERNATIVE  METHODS  (1970S)     Total  Physical  Response  (TPR)  (Asher  1977)   The  Natural  Approach  (Terrell  1977)     i.  Linguistic  background   ‒  Basis:  spoken  language   ‒  Language  learning  =  language  comprehension     ii.  Learning  theoretical  basis   ‒  ‘Comprehensible  input’   ‒  Krashen’s  Monitor  Theory     iii.  How/what?   ‒  Teacher  speaks  only  in  the  target  language   ‒  Students  can  use  L1;  speak  only  in  L2  when  ‘ready’   ‒  No  error  correction   ‒  Focus  on  semantics;  no  focus  on  grammar