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THE 4 PERSPECTIVES PERSPECTIVE Disciplinary origin Emphasis Key concepts Key processes STRUCTURAL Engineering, Sociology Efficiency, Scientific and technical approach, rationality, formal roles and relationships Rules, roles, objectives, measurement, technology Division of labour, specialization, coordination of activities HUMAN RESOURCE Psychology Interpersonal relations, motivation, relationship between people and organizations Needs, motivations, abilities, relationships Motivate people, adapt organizations to satisfy individual needs POLITICAL Political Science Power relations, allocation of scarce resources Power, conflict, competition, politics Negotiation, coalition formation SYMBOLIC Social and Cultural Anthropology Organizations as sets of symbols; as tribes, theatres or carnivals Culture, ritual, ceremony, stories, myths, symbols, metaphors, charisma Create and promote a common vision, attend to the meaning of events, create relevant rituals and symbols PART 5: THE SYMBOLIC PERSPECTIVE • 5.1. ORGANIZATIONAL SYMBOLS AND CULTURE • 5.2. CULTURE IN ACTION • 5.3. ORGANIZATION AS THEATER Experiments related to the search for meaning • Minimal group paradigm • Framing in cooperation/competition games • People contribute more to charity if they have to suffer for it • When reminded about mortality, people embrace more strongly the beliefs, values and symbols of groups Experiments related to the search for meaning • Experiment: One group was presented with the possibility to pay to attend a poetry reading by a professor Another group was presented with the possibility to get paid to attended the poetry reading Then both groups were offered the chance to go to a poetry reading by a professor for free • What happened? Why? • Another great example of the construction of meaning is the film “Life is Beautiful” Key suppositions of the symbolic perspective • What is important is not what happens but what it means • Activity and meaning are loosely coupled; events and actions can have multiple interpretations • Facing uncertainty and ambiguity, people create symbols to resolve confusion and find direction • Events and processes are often more important for what is expressed than for what is produced • Culture forms the glue that bonds an organization and unites its people Functions of symbols • Symbols as reflections of organizational culture • Symbols as triggers of internalized values and norms • Symbols as frames for conversations about organizational life • Symbols as integrators of organizational systems of meaning Types of symbolic elements in organizations • Myths, values, and vision • Heroes and heroines • Stories and fairy tales • Rituals • Ceremonies Myths, values, and vision • Myths: Traditional symbolic elements, often created at the start of a culture • For example, the myth of the original plan for Southwest Airlines being sketched on a napkin in a bar by Herb Kelleher • Values: Characterize what an organization stands for; they define a unique distinguishing character • Unlike goals, they are intangible • They convey a sense of identity • They often rest on history, tradition and mythology Heroes and Heroines • Many successful organizations have people that are seen as cultural heroes • They usually embody and embrace organizational myths and values and act as human icons, role models or motivators • They often are organizational leaders, like Herb Kelleher, Steve Jobs, etc. • But heroic figures don’t have to be at the top Heroes and Heroines • For example, Southwest Airlines recognizes annually its employees in a “Heroes of the heart” award ceremony • It honours the most significant contributions from employees to Southwest’s culture and performance • Also Nucor has similar initiatives • Heroic symbolism in organizations can be important to create a strong culture and clear role models, and to motivate people Stories and fairy tales • Stories are often part of organizational culture, and they often relate to organizational myths and values • They can be an engaging and powerful way to convey myths and values • They perpetuate tradition • Examples: Herb Kelleher’s napkin story Herb Kelleher’s Elvis story Ritz-Carlton’s doorman story Ceremonies • Special event of ritual significance • Similar to a ritual but generally more episodic and elaborate • Examples: Initiation ceremony Opening ceremonies Birthday or funeral Rites of passage Investiture of new manager or executive Potential negativity of symbolic elements • Symbolic elements are powerful and they can also have negative effects • They can block change, adaptation and learning, and also motivate negative behaviours: Certain myths can create negative attitudes People can become organizational heroes for the wrong reasons Things like avoiding work, complaining, or bullying others can become organizational rituals • Examples: Enron, Arthur Andersen • Managers and leaders should try to understand organizational culture and symbols, and use them to shape better organizations International cultural differences • There are important differences in organizational cultures and symbols between different nations • Important work by Hofstede (1984) • Study conducted at IBM, worldwide • Four important international cultural differences in managerial practice: Power distance Uncertainty avoidance Individualism Masculinity-Femininity
