apuntes poesia inglesa, Apuntes de Poesía

¡Descarga apuntes poesia inglesa y más Apuntes en PDF de Poesía solo en Docsity! “What is at stake in language?” The quote by W.H. Auden, “If language is corrupted thought is corrupted" suggests that language plays a crucial role in shaping thought and communication. If language becomes corrupted or distorted, so does the associated thinking. The second quote by Ludwig Wittgenstein, "Until now, philosophers have only spoken nonsense: the problem was that they didn't realize they were using the same word in completely different senses," refers to the importance of clarity and precision in language. Wittgenstein criticizes previous philosophers for using words inconsistently or ambiguously, leading to ineffective communication and misunderstandings. In summary, these quotes highlight the influence of language on thought and the importance of using language clearly and precisely to avoid the corruption of thought and achieve effective communication. Another dimension and the system of systems, who is the beloved? Dante’s Beatrice is "the name of the amorous experience of the event of language at play in the poetic text itself... the name and the love of language... as the event of verse from the pure Nothing." Giorgio Agamben, The End of the Poem, 58 In this passage, Giorgio Agamben is discussing the literary figure of Beatrice in the work of Italian poet Dante Alighieri. Agamben describes Beatrice as "the name of the amorous experience of the event of language at play in the poetic text itself... the name and the love of language... as the event of verse from the pure Nothing." In other words, Agamben suggests that Beatrice represents more than just a character or a muse in Dante's poems. Beatrice embodies the amorous and poetic experience of language itself. Her name and the love Dante feels for her are symbols of the deep and passionate relationship the poet has with language. Agamben also mentions "the event of verse from the pure Nothing." Here, he refers to the creative and transformative act of poetry, where language transcends its initial state of "nothing" and becomes something full of meaning and beauty. In summary, Agamben highlights the central role of language and love for language in poetry, using Beatrice as a symbol of this amorous and creative experience. Beatrice embodies the connection between language, love, and the ability of poetry to give life and meaning to what would otherwise be an empty "nothing." Another dimension, another time. Instructions for the artist-philologist. “Philology is a venerable art which demands of its votaries 1 one thing above all: to go aside, to take time, to become still, to become slow – it is a goldsmith’s art and connoisseurship of the word which has nothing but delicate, continuous work to do and achieves nothing if it does not achieve it lento… This art does not so easily get everything done, it teaches to read well… to read slowly, deeply, looking cautiously before and aft, with reservation, with doors left open, with delicate eyes and fingers.” Friederich Nietzsche, ‘Preface’ to Daybreak: Thoughts on the Prejudices of Morality.2 Nietzsche describes philology as a venerable art that requires its practitioners to go aside, take time, become still, and become slow. He compares it to the work of a goldsmith, emphasizing the delicacy and continuous effort involved in working with words. Philology, according to Nietzsche, achieves its purpose through a slow and meticulous approach, often described as "lento." Furthermore, Nietzsche suggests that the art of philology teaches one how to read well. This involves reading slowly, deeply, and with caution, carefully considering what comes before and after the text. It requires keeping an open mind, being attentive, and using delicate eyes and fingers to engage with the material. In summary, Nietzsche's passage underscores the importance of philology as an art that demands patience, attentiveness, and a slow, meticulous approach to reading and understanding. It highlights the value of deep engagement with words and the significance of embracing a contemplative and deliberate mindset in the pursuit of knowledge and interpretation. Another dimension. Texts: Intertextuality and estrangement: “In this suspension wherein reference is deferred… a text is somehow “in the air”… by means of this obliteration of all relation to the world, every text is free to enter into relation with other texts which come to take the place of the circumstantial reality shown by the living speech.” Paul Ricoeur, ‘What is a Text? Explanation and Interpretation. In this passage from Paul Ricoeur's "What is a Text? Explanation and Interpretation," Ricoeur discusses the idea of intertextuality and estrangement in literature. Ricoeur argues that a text exists in a suspended state, where its reference to the world is deferred. This means that the text is not necessarily tied to any particular context or circumstance, allowing it to float freely and potentially be interpreted in a variety of ways. In this sense, Ricoeur suggests that a text is "in the air." Furthermore, Ricoeur claims that this state of suspension allows texts to enter into relationships with one another. With no reference to a specific context, every text is free to engage with other texts in a way that creates new and unique meanings. In essence, the absence of a fixed referent or context allows texts to take on new significance in relation to other texts. Ricoeur's ideas of intertextuality and estrangement highlight the power of literature to create new meanings and relationships that transcend the limits of any particular context. By suspending reference to the world, texts become free to engage in new and unexpected ways, creating a space for the reader to interpret and engage with them on a deeper level. I. Introduction: the double dimension. I.I. The notion of reality: ‘reality’ vs. Real. I.II. Another dimension of language: Poetry vs. discourse. I.III. The lesson of poetry. I.IV. The lesson of Modernism. I.I. The notion of reality. ‘reality’ vs. real. What do we call reality? The human ‘world as it is’. Two different approaches: The first approach is the subjective approach, which refers to the ordinary and familiar idea of the world that is based on individual experiences and perceptions. This approach encompasses the ways in which humans see, think, and live their lives. The passage includes quotes from William Blake and W.B. Yeats that highlight the limitations and constraints of this subjective understanding of reality. Blake refers to it as "mind-forged manacles," suggesting that it is a self-imposed confinement of the mind, while Yeats refers to it as "man's fate," implying that it is a predetermined and limited understanding of the world. The passage also mentions the necessity of invoking this subjective approach to comprehend reality: to break free from the limitations of the subjective approach, one must invoke or call upon a different perspective or way of seeing things. This could be seen as a way to expand one's consciousness or challenge the established conventions of reality. The second approach is an objective description of "the world as it is." This approach focuses on the objective aspects of reality, such as commodification1, freedom, communication, forgetting, money, specialization, privatization, calculation, and security. These aspects are seen as shaping the objective understanding of the world. In summary, the passage presents two contrasting approaches to understanding human reality: the subjective approach based on individual experiences and perceptions, and the objective approach that focuses on the objective aspects of reality. Each approach offers a different perspective on how we perceive and interpret the world around us. 1 The action or process of treating a person or thing as property which can be traded or whose value is purely monetary; the treatment of a person or thing as a commodity; commercialization. (OED) The "nonhuman real," refers to aspects of existence that are not easily understood or experienced through ordinary human perception. The Real cannot be fully grasped through the conventional ways of seeing or understanding the world, and it extends beyond the limits of human reality as it is objectively described. There are several aspects that are considered part of the nonhuman real: • The unconscious: This refers to the realm of the mind that operates outside of conscious awareness. It encompasses thoughts, desires, and memories that influence human behavior without conscious recognition. • The economic base: This refers to the underlying structure and dynamics of economic systems. It suggests that economic forces and mechanisms shape and influence human reality, going beyond individual perceptions and actions. • The natural law: This refers to the fundamental principles and laws that govern the natural world. It implies that there are objective laws and processes that exist independently of human understanding or interpretation. • Being-qua-being: This phrase refers to the pure existence or essence of things, beyond their particular manifestations or human interpretations. It implies that there is a deeper reality or essence to everything that extends beyond human perception. I.II. Another dimension of language: Poetry vs. discourse. • The poem has nothing to communicate: It is suggested that the poem does not seek to convey a specific message or content. Instead, it presents itself as a manifestation of language itself, a linguistic event that is renewed with each experience. • Trust in the native innocence of words: In the poem, there is a trust in the purity and original essence of words. The delicacy with which the poem touches the possibilities of language is emphasized, presenting itself as the careful guardian of language. • The poem as music of silence: The poem is described as an exception to the noise and tumult of the world. It is attributed as a "restricted action" in contrast to the "universal reporting," suggesting that the poem focuses on the poetic expression itself rather than mere representation of the world. • Ethics of good saying: An ethics of good saying is mentioned in relation to the poem. It is highlighted that the poem suspends language upon itself and acts as the guardian of decency in expression. It opposes the obscenity of exhibitionism, total knowledge, and constant commentary. • The poem as thought in action: The poem is considered as thought that manifests itself sensibly and directly in presence. It is emphasized that the poetic experience involves accessing an affirmation of being that goes beyond objective apprehension. I.III. The lesson of poetry. Poetry teaches us that there are to ways in which man can scape from its fate: There are two suggested ways in which this escape is possible: - Outside the situation: The escape from "man's fate" may lie outside the circumstances in which an individual is trapped. This is referred to as the myth of the muse, suggesting that inspiration and liberation can be found beyond one's immediate reality. - Inside the individual: The escape may also reside within the individual, in a realm that is not controlled by the ordinary ways of seeing, thinking, and being. This is associated with the romantic imagination, where the poem itself acts as a musician of silence, tapping into something deeper and transcendent. Escaping "man's fate" involves a great level of intensity and disruption. The mind must break open, akin to the birth of Athena in mythology. This can be expressed as a powerful transformative experience, as seen in Wordsworth's lines where his mind turns with the force of mighty waters. While "man's fate" may not be completely abolished, poetry has the power to suspend it temporarily. This suspension occurs in a moment that transcends the opposition between eternity and time. A poetic experience is characterized by encountering difference, and though it may not be a permanent state, it has the potential to recur. I.IV. The lesson of modernism, the linguistic turn. Language is constitutive: Modernism highlights the idea that language is not simply a tool for communication but plays a fundamental role in shaping our perception and interpretation of reality. This understanding is influenced by philosophers like Heidegger and developments in Analytic philosophy. Linguistics: The linguistic perspective, influenced by Ferdinand de Saussure, views language as a system of differences. Structuralism, a linguistic approach, suggests that emblem or allegory is seen as arbitrary and unmotivated, lacking an immanent meaning. Once the meaning of an emblem is reached, its purpose is fulfilled. • Relationship between signifier and signified: The romantic symbol is described as having a different relationship between the signifier (the symbol itself) and the signified (the meaning it represents). The symbol is said to be expressive and motivated, reflecting a natural connection between the two. It carries an immanent meaning that is inherent within it. • Spiritual reality within the artist's imagination: The passage also mentions the idea that the spiritual reality that exists in the world around us is also present within the artist's imagination. This suggests that the artist has the ability to tap into a deeper, transcendent realm and express it through their creative works. Wordsworth’s quote, "Oh there is blessing in this gentle breeze," exemplifies the romantic symbol in action. It expresses a sense of spiritual connection and harmony with nature, reflecting the unity of being and the immanent meaning embedded within the symbol. These poles of the double dimension have three main stages: 1. The religious tradition: the other dimension is transcendent (divinity). 2. Romanticism: the other dimension, the divine, is immanent.2 3. Secularisation: the divine is displaced by a secular element.3 The two dimensions in Western culture: • Being and Existing. Dread and fear. Being refers to the essence or nature of things, while existence refers to the empirical and concrete reality of things in the world. Heidegger explored the concept of dread as an existential fear and fear as a specific apprehension of something. • Reality vs. appearance: It refers to the distinction between what is genuine and true as opposed to what only appears to be real or true. • The particular and the universal, the concrete and the abstract, the singular and the general, form and content: These pairs of concepts represent the tension between the specific and the general, the concrete and the abstract, and the relationship between the form in which something is presented and its content. • Presence/absence: The phrase "Oh absent presence, Stella is not here" alludes to the feeling that someone or something is present even in their physical absence, evoking a presence that transcends immediate reality. • Quality vs. quantity: It refers to the distinction between the quality or distinctive characteristic of something as opposed to its quantity or magnitude. 2 There is a “displacement from a supernatural to a natural frame of reference” (Abrams 1973: 13), tendency to “naturalize the supernatural and to humanize the divine” (Abrams 1973: 68). 3 In Culture, Eagleton explains that desire is the secular substitute of God. • Thought and language: It refers to the relationship between thought and language, and how language can shape and express thought. Agamben examines this relationship in the context of Dante's work. • The Word and the words: This distinction refers to the difference between the Word as a significant and transcendent entity, and the individual words we use in everyday language. • Eternity vs. time: Represents the dichotomy between the timeless and the temporal, the eternal and the transient. It refers to the idea that time can be experienced both as a continuous process and as a singular instant. • Mysticism vs. asceticism: Refers to two different approaches to the spiritual realm. Mysticism seeks a direct and experiential connection with the divine, while asceticism seeks transcendence through renunciation and discipline. • Faith and works: References the tension between faith, which involves belief and trust in something beyond the material, and works, which are practical actions and efforts in the world. • Dance vs. displacement: Evokes the image of dance as rhythmic and harmonious movement in contrast to mere physical displacement. Dance suggests a special beauty and grace. • Desire vs. need: Refers to the difference between what we long for and want as opposed to what we actually need for survival or satisfaction. • Satisfaction vs. happiness: Represents the distinction between mere satisfaction of our desires and needs versus a deeper and lasting state of happiness and fulfillment. • Things vs. objects (Heidegger, Badiou): This distinction refers to Heidegger and Badiou's perspective on the ontological difference between mere objects and meaningful things. Things are endowed with significance and have a deeper existential meaning, while objects are seen as mere entities with utilitarian or functional value. • Perception vs. vision: It refers to the differentiation between perception, which involves the sensory experience and interpretation of the immediate world, and vision, which implies a deeper understanding and insight into the underlying truths or realities. The quotes provided highlight the role of light in both perception and vision, emphasizing the illumination of what is seen. • Sound and silence vs. noise (Prynne on 'The Solitary Reaper'; Auden's 'Homage to Clio'; Badiou): These references explore the contrast between meaningful sounds and silence as opposed to chaotic or meaningless noise. The mention of Prynne, Auden, and Badiou suggests that these poets and philosophers delve into the significance of sound and silence in their respective works. II.I Presence and absence. Iago takes advantage of something that is intrinsic to language; language, like Iago's "Nothing," tears a gaping hole in the world. It makes absent things present, inducing you to see with intolerable clarity what is not there at all". (Eagleton, On Evil 91) In the passage, Eagleton is discussing how language, like the character Iago in Shakespeare's play Othello, has the ability to create a sense of presence and absence. Language has the power to make things that are not physically present feel as if they are there. It can evoke vivid mental images and make us perceive things with great clarity, even if those things do not actually exist. Iago, as a manipulative character, takes advantage of this aspect of language. He uses his words to create an illusion, making people believe in something that is not real. He exploits the gap between what is said and what actually exists, using language to deceive and manipulate others. The "Nothing" referred to in the passage is an emblematic phrase used by Iago in the play, where he pretends to have knowledge of an alleged infidelity of Othello's wife, Desdemona. Through his words, Iago manages to create a deceptive absence, causing Othello to imagine and see things that do not actually exist. Iago exploits the capacity of language to make what is not present feel as if it were there, leading to a distortion of perception and decisions based on false information. Eagleton suggests that this ability of language to create a sense of presence where there is absence is a significant aspect of Iago's evil nature. It shows how language can be used to distort reality, leading people to believe in things that are not true and causing them to see things that are not actually there. Essentially, the passage highlights the power of language to create illusions and manipulate our perception of reality, as demonstrated through Iago's actions in the play. The solitary reaper, an encounter: "The Solitary Reaper" is a poem that explores various encounters and distances. There is a temporal and spatial distance between the speaker and the reaper, as indicated by the use of the word "yon" to refer to the distant location of the reaper. This distance emphasizes the separation between the observer and the working girl. There is also a spatial, social, cultural, and historical distance between the observing traveler and the working girl. This distance represents the divide between different worlds or perspectives, such as tradition and modernity. The poem highlights the contrast between the traveler's position and the girl's labor, suggesting a separation based on societal and historical factors. Furthermore, there is a chronological distance between the moment when the speaker is present in the field and the moments of composing and reading the poem. This temporal gap emphasizes the reflective nature of the poem, as the speaker recalls and contemplates the encounter with the reaper after the fact. In terms of the poet's encounter, there is a juxtaposition between contemplation and process. The speaker urges the traveler to stop and be still to appreciate the reaper's song, highlighting the contemplative aspect of the encounter. At the same time, the poem acknowledges the girl's activity of walking and working, emphasizing the ongoing process of life and labor. In the second series of 'There is no Natural Religion,' Blake further expands on the idea that human perceptions are not limited to the capabilities of the sensory organs. He argues that we can perceive more than what our physical senses alone can reveal. Additionally, Blake states that if someone were capable of desiring something they are incapable of possessing, they would be eternally destined for despair. However, he also suggests that since the desire of man is infinite, the fulfillment and possession of those desires are also infinite, and by extension, man himself is infinite. These passages highlight Blake's belief in the power of perception and desire as fundamental aspects of human existence. He suggests that human perception can go beyond the limitations of the physical senses, leading to profound experiences and infinite desires. II.III. Process vs. Instant. Calculation vs. Vision. The Wild Swans at Coole In the analysis of Yeats' poem "The Wild Swans at Coole," several contrasts and themes are highlighted. 1. Time: The poem explores the contrast between cyclical time and chronological time. Cyclical time refers to the natural cycles and patterns of the swans' migration, while chronological time marks the passing of years for the speaker. The swans' timeless existence stands in contrast to the speaker's experience of time. 2. Moment of vision vs. process of counting: The poem juxtaposes the immediate and transformative experience of a moment of vision with the gradual process of counting and measuring time. The speaker recounts the years that have passed since the initial vision of the swans, symbolizing the weariness and disillusionment that comes with the passage of time. 3. Double subject: The poem involves two subjects. Firstly, the lyric voice, representing the speaker, who is worn out not only by the passage of time but also by having witnessed the beauty of the swans. The speaker counts the years since the moment of vision and reflects on the contrast between the past experience and the present state of his heart. Secondly, there is the subject who creates the poem itself, drawing from the separation from the moment of plenitude. This separation allows for introspection and poetic expression, similar to Wordsworth's exploration of memory and creativity in "Tintern Abbey." 4. Expression of feelings: The poem serves as an expression of the speaker's feelings, particularly his sorrow and longing. The speaker's heartache is a result of the contrast between the memory of the brilliant swans and the present reality. The poem captures the speaker's emotional response to the passage of time and the transient nature of beauty. Overall, "The Wild Swans at Coole" delves into themes of time, vision, memory, and the expressive power of poetry. It explores the tension between cyclical and chronological time, the impact of transformative moments on the human experience, and the poetic creation born out of separation from past plenitude. The poem serves as an emotional reflection on the passage of time and the fleeting nature of beauty. II.IV. Continuity and discontinuity between the two dimensions The discussion revolves around the continuity and discontinuity between two dimensions: the Christian version and the Romantic version. Alain Badiou explores the concept of mediation, particularly the mediation of Christ in the Christian version and the mediation of poetry in the Romantic version. According to Badiou, in the Christian version, through the mediation of Christ, there is a connection between the Being in the world and the real divine Being. The complete fusion of these two dimensions occurs in the pure subjectivity of Christ, which offers a new vision of human destiny. It suggests that human existence, with all its suffering and mortality, is, in its true essence, a reflection of the infinite God. On the other hand, in the Romantic version, a new form of mediation emerges through poetry. Romanticism introduces the idea that poetry can create new possibilities for language and expression. Through poetry, language can be pushed to convey something that was previously impossible to articulate. This leads to the emergence of new forms of sensibility and a redefined relationship between existence and being. Through the mediation of poetry, individuals can transform and become new subjects. Overall, Badiou highlights the role of mediation in both the Christian and Romantic perspectives. In the Christian version, the mediation of Christ establishes a connection between the human and the divine, while in the Romantic version, poetry serves as a transformative mediator that enables new forms of expression and subjective experience. 1 Oh4 there is blessing5 in this gentle breeze 2 That blows from the green fields and from the clouds 3 And from the sky: it beats6 against my cheek, 4 And seems half-conscious of the joy it gives. 5 O welcome Messenger! O welcome Friend! 6 A captive greets thee, coming from a house 7 Of bondage, from yon City's walls set free, 8 A prison where he hath been long immured. 9 Now I am free, enfranchis'd and at large, … 15 The earth is all before me: with a heart 16 Joyous, nor scar'd at its own liberty, 17 I look about, and should the guide I chuse 18 Be nothing better than a wandering cloud, 19 I cannot miss my way. I breathe again; The system of systems and the double dimension: 5) Compare ll. 15-19 with “The World was all before them, where to choose / Thir place of rest, and Providence thir guide: /They hand in hand with wandring steps and slow, / Through Eden took thir solitarie way. ” (Paradise Lost XII 646-649). The echoes of Paradise Lost (see the notes to this passage of The Prelude in the file ‘selection 1c’) are extremely important to perceive the quality of this new poetic language from which Milton’s mythology and all the allusions to the supernatural world have been purged. Instead of the traditional act of invocation for inspiration to a supernatural being, we have the poet’s acknowledgment of and response to the spirit of nature that inspires him. To understand this, we must consider the interaction of systems in the poem. - The semantic and the sound system The double dimension can be seen at a semantic level. We are told things about the “breeze” that suggest that it is more than an atmospheric phenomenon: ”there is blessing” in it, it “seems half-conscious”, it makes gifts (“gives,” “joy,” makes the poet’s heart “joyous”), it is a “Messenger” and “Friend”. If we pay attention to the interaction between other systems and the semantic system in the first line of the poem, we can notice how the composition of the line (“blessing” and “breeze” situated before the pause of the caesura and of the end of the line) and the alliteration “blessing” – “breeze” connect these two words so that we are invited to read “blessing … breeze.” The effect of this is to highlgiht the exchange between the poet and the breeze: the poet acknowledges that there is something spiritual in the breeze 4 Contact with another dimension (condition of possibility for the poem to begin): the poet is caught by surprise. Intertextuality: “a gentle shock of mild surprise” (‘There Was a Boy’), “a still small voice” (The Holy Bible, I Kings 19:11–12). 5 Speech act: acknowledgment of the gift (inspiration) he receives from the breeze 6 The “breeze” “blows” rhythmically, like the rhythm of the poem. “Beats” also refers to the beating heart and, thus, to the idea of nature as an organism. The breeze is the spirit of nature: poetry is born out of the correspondence between poet and nature. 6. Identity vs subjectivity: This represents the duality between one's fixed identity, which is shaped by external factors and societal norms, and subjectivity, which refers to the individual's personal experiences, emotions, and perspectives. Identity relates to how we are seen or defined by others, while subjectivity focuses on our unique inner world. • Subject to: This phrase suggests that identity is often subject to external forces and circumstances beyond our control. It implies that our fate or predetermined outcomes are influenced by societal expectations, cultural norms, or other factors that shape our identity. • Subject of: This refers to the aspect of subjectivity, freedom, and the imagination. It implies that individuals have the capacity to be the subjects or creators of their own experiences, thoughts, and desires. It emphasizes the importance of personal agency, free will, and the power of imagination in shaping one's identity and reality. • 'Death': The inclusion of this term suggests that it is another dimension within the double dimension framework. Death represents the ultimate existential reality, the end of life, and the boundary of human existence. It serves as a reminder of the finite nature of our identity and the profound impact it can have on our subjective experiences and understanding of reality. 7. From negation to affirmation. II.VI. The poetic language. “[T]he materiality of the expression, does not disappear before the signified, or at least cannot be traversed and transgressed as it is in conscious speech. It acts as such, with the efficacy Artaud assigned it on the stage of cruelty. The materiality of a word cannot be translated or carried over into another language. Materiality is precisely that which translation relinquishes. To relinquish materiality: such is the driving force of translation. And when that materiality is reinstated, translation becomes poetry." Derrida on Freud in Writing and Difference. In this excerpt from Derrida's "Writing and Difference," he discusses the concept of materiality in language and its relation to translation and poetry. Here's an explanation: Derrida begins by stating that the materiality of expression, which refers to the physical aspects of language such as sound, rhythm, and visual appearance, cannot be disregarded or surpassed by the meaning or signified content of words. In conscious speech, we often prioritize the meaning conveyed by words, but Derrida argues that the materiality of language retains its power and efficacy, especially in certain contexts like Antonin Artaud's theater of cruelty. Derrida suggests that the materiality of words cannot be fully captured or transferred when translating from one language to another. Translation involves the transposition of meaning, but it inevitably involves the loss or abandonment of the specific material qualities of the original language. The materiality of words, which encompasses their sonic, visual, and embodied aspects, is something that translation relinquishes or leaves behind. However, Derrida proposes that when the materiality of language is reinstated, such as in the context of poetry, translation takes on a new dimension. Poetry, with its heightened attention to the sonic, rhythmic, and sensory qualities of language, reintroduces the materiality that translation typically relinquishes. The act of relinquishing materiality and then reinstating it becomes a driving force for translation, resulting in poetic expression. This passage reflects Derrida's broader exploration of language, meaning, and translation, highlighting the complex interplay between the materiality of words, their signified content, and the transformative possibilities of poetry. • The Poetic function vs. language as an instrument of communication: distinction between the poetic function of language and its ordinary use as a means of communication. Poetry, as an artistic form, often goes beyond mere communication of information and aims to evoke emotions, create imagery, and convey deeper meaning through the use of figurative language, symbolism, and other poetic devices. • Poetry vs. representation: Poetry is contrasted with representation, suggesting that poetry is not solely focused on accurately mirroring or depicting reality, but rather it explores subjective experiences, emotions, and perspectives. It emphasizes the creative and imaginative aspects of language rather than strict representation of external objects or events. • The Realist ideal of immediacy and transparency vs. the Modernist concern with the 'poetic function': Realism, a literary movement that aims for faithful representation of reality, values immediacy and transparency in language, striving for a direct and clear communication of ideas. In contrast, Modernist writers are more concerned with the poetic function of language, which includes the exploration of linguistic experimentation, fragmentation, ambiguity, and self-reflexivity. • Rhythm, alliteration, internal rhymes, and syntactic parallelism: The provided line, "No, let the candied tongue lick absurd pomp," demonstrates various poetic techniques. It employs iambic pentameter, a rhythmic pattern consisting of five pairs of unstressed and stressed syllables per line. Alliteration is used with the repetition of the sounds "l" and "p" in "let...lick" and internal rhymes can be found in "ton" and "pomp." Additionally, the line showcases syntactic parallelism, as the structure is mirrored with "No" at the beginning and "pomp" at the end, while the central phrase conveys a contrasting action. II.VII The dimension of poetry. • Tension between the two dimensions in Yeats's poetry: In W.B. Yeats’ poetry, there is a tension between these two dimensions. Yeats's poetry often explores themes of the spiritual, the mythic, and the eternal, while also acknowledging the harsh realities of fate, the noise of everyday life, and the negative aspects of existence. • Two kinds of poetry: There are two distinct types of poetry: one that engages with the noise of fate, the struggles and limitations of human existence, and another that transcends these limitations and embraces the affirmative, visionary, and transcendent aspects of life. • Negative and affirmative moments: Poetry can encompass both negative and affirmative moments. The negative moments may involve grappling with the challenges, contradictions, and harsh realities of existence. In contrast, the affirmative moments represent the uplifting, visionary, and transcendent elements that poetry can convey. Silence: the dimension of poetry. 1. Poetry as the explosion of a silence: According to J.A. Valente, poetry is described as the "explosion of a silence." This suggests that poetry emerges from a state of stillness or silence and erupts into expressive and powerful language. 2. The poem as the musician of its own silence: A. Badiou describes the poem as the musician of its own silence, implying that within the realm of poetry, there is a delicate balance between sound and silence. The poem's language and rhythm act as guardians, preserving and shaping the silence from which it arises. 3. Poetic sound and silence vs. the noise of ordinary life: The contrast lies not between sound and silence themselves but between the poetic sound and silence on one hand and the noise of ordinary life on the other. Poetry offers a contrast to the chaotic and often overwhelming noise of everyday existence. It creates a space where the beauty and power of language can be appreciated in relation to moments of silence or stillness. In summary, poetry emerges from silence and utilizes sound and silence in opposition to the noise of ordinary life. Poetry is seen as an explosion of language that embraces both sound and the moments of silence that punctuate it, offering a unique and contrasting experience to the noise and distractions of everyday existence. The functions of poetry: 1. Didactic function: Poetry has a didactic function, which means it aims to teach and instruct. It can convey knowledge, moral lessons, or philosophical ideas. This function is often associated with the notion of poetry as a form of education. 2. Therapeutic function: Poetry can serve a therapeutic function by providing catharsis. Catharsis refers to the emotional release or purging that occurs through experiencing art, including poetry. It allows individuals to express and process their emotions, providing a sense of relief or healing. 3. Revelatory function: Poetry can have a revelatory function, meaning it reveals or uncovers truths about the human experience or the world. It can offer new The Fennian and the Red Branch cycles of legends (compiled in the twelfth century): - The Ulster or Red Branch Cycle set in the 1st century BC. The most important tale is ‘The Cattle Raid of Cooley’ on the conflict between Conchobar of Ulster and Queen Medb of Connaught. Deeds of Cuchulain. Also very important is the love story of Deirdre and Naísi in ‘The Fate of the Sons of Usnech’. - The Fionn or Ossianic Cycle, set in the 1st century AD, tells the deeds of Finn, father of Oissin, and the Finnians. Oissin survived at The Battle of Gabra where the Fennians were defeated and was lured away by a fairy. Yeats work on Irish Folklore: Yeats published Fairy and Folk Tales of te Irish Peasantry (1888) and The Celtic Twilight (1893). Main interests: • Ireland: Yeats was deeply interested in the history and culture of his home country, and he believed in the importance of reviving and celebrating its traditional Celtic roots. • Occultism and mysticism: Yeats was a member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, an organization devoted to the study and practice of the occult. He was also deeply interested in mysticism and spiritualism. • Literature: Yeats was fascinated by allegory and symbolism, which he believed were powerful tools for conveying complex meanings and ideas. Main themes: • Identity and subjectivity: Yeats was interested in exploring questions of personal identity and subjective experience. He believed that individuals could only truly understand themselves by embracing the multiple masks or personas that made up their personalities. • Order and authority: Yeats was politically conservative and believed in the importance of order and hierarchy in society. He was critical of the democratic ideals of his time and believed that only an elite group of individuals should be entrusted with governing. • Time and beauty: Yeats was fascinated by the relationship between time and beauty, and he believed that art had the power to transcend time and capture the eternal. Main tensions: • Yeats's dialogic lyric voice: Yeats often wrote in a dialogic voice, creating a sense of tension between different perspectives and viewpoints within a single poem. • Unity of Being: Yeats was interested in exploring the idea of a unified, transcendent reality that lay beyond the material world. • Esotericism and mysticism vs. common language: Yeats often used obscure and esoteric language in his poetry, which could make it difficult for some readers to understand. • Imagination vs. calculation: Yeats believed that imagination was a more powerful and important tool than rational calculation when it came to creating meaningful art and understanding the world. He was critical of the scientific and empirical approaches of his time. Literature and philosophy: • Romanticism, Victorianism, Modernism: Yeats's poetry spans multiple literary movements. He started as a poet influenced by Romanticism, which emphasized individualism, emotion, and a connection with nature. However, as he developed his style, he moved away from the sentimentality associated with Victorian poetry and embraced the experimental and fragmented aesthetics of Modernism. • Against rhetoric and sentimentalism (‘Ego Dominus Tuus’): Yeats rebelled against the excessive use of rhetoric and sentimentalism in poetry. He sought to create a more authentic and intellectual form of expression, rejecting clichéd language and superficial emotions. • Spenser and Blake: Yeats drew inspiration from earlier poets, particularly Edmund Spenser and William Blake. Spenser's epic poem "The Faerie Queene" influenced Yeats's exploration of Irish mythology and his use of allegory. Blake, known for his mystical and visionary poetry, influenced Yeats's interest in symbolism and the spiritual dimensions of art. • Symbolism: Yeats was one of the leading figures of the Symbolist movement in poetry. Symbolists aimed to express abstract ideas and emotions through the use of vivid and suggestive symbols rather than direct representation. Yeats employed rich symbolism in his poems to convey complex and mystical themes. • Allegory and symbol: Yeats frequently employed allegory and symbol in his poetry. Allegory is a narrative technique in which characters, events, and settings represent abstract ideas or moral qualities. Symbols, on the other hand, are objects, images, or actions that carry deeper meanings beyond their literal sense. Yeats used allegory and symbols to explore universal themes and convey his philosophical ideas. • Philosophical tradition: The influence of Nietzsche: Yeats was influenced by the philosophical ideas of Friedrich Nietzsche, particularly his concept of the "Übermensch" (Superman) and the idea of the eternal recurrence. These ideas influenced Yeats's exploration of individualism, the search for transcendent meaning, and the tension between the finite and the infinite in his poetry. Yeats dialogic lyric voice. • Paired poems: 'The Song of the Happy Shepherd', 'The Song of the Sad Shepherd': These two poems can be seen as a pair, presenting contrasting perspectives. 'The Song of the Happy Shepherd' depicts an idyllic and joyful view of life and nature, while 'The Song of the Sad Shepherd' explores themes of loss, disillusionment, and the darker aspects of existence. The pairing of these poems allows Yeats to delve into different emotional and thematic territories. • Dramatic poems: Yeats often employed dramatic elements in his poetry, presenting conflicting viewpoints or voices within a single poem. 'The Mask' features two opposing ideas of love, exploring the tensions between passion and restraint, while 'Ego Dominus Tuus' presents contrasting ideas of the self, reflecting on the complexities of identity and personal power. • 'The Dialogue of Self and Soul': This poem exemplifies Yeats's use of dramatic dialogue, presenting a conversation between the self and the soul. The two voices in the poem embody contrasting ideas of fulfillment, with the self representing worldly desires and ambitions, and the soul representing higher spiritual aspirations. The dialogue explores the tension between these two aspects of human existence. • Implicit split between the lyric and the poetic voice: In 'The Wild Swans at Coole' and other poems, Yeats creates a distinction between the personal, lyrical voice and the broader, more objective voice of the poet. The lyric voice often expresses personal emotions, experiences, and observations, while the poetic voice engages with larger themes, societal concerns, and philosophical inquiries. The split between these voices adds depth and complexity to Yeats's poetry. Overall, these poetic techniques, such as paired poems, dramatic elements, and the distinction between the lyric and poetic voice, allow Yeats to explore contrasting ideas, emotions, and perspectives within his work. They contribute to the richness and complexity of his poetry, inviting readers to engage with multiple layers of meaning and interpretation. Style: Yeats's style can be characterized as a unique blend of seemingly casual, random, and unsystematic observations combined with deeper philosophical or esoteric meanings. On the surface, his poetry often presents vivid and sensuous descriptions of the world, drawing on sensory impressions and imagery to create a rich and immersive experience for the reader. However, beneath these sensory impressions, there is a deliberate and systematic thought process at work. Yeats was known for his intellectual rigor and engagement with philosophical ideas. He incorporated philosophical arguments and esoteric symbolism into his poems, infusing them with deeper layers of meaning beyond the immediate sensory experience. In terms of the relationship between sensuous impressions and intellectual meanings, Yeats believed that they were not separate or contradictory, but rather intertwined. He criticized the poet Edmund Spenser for what he saw as a disconnect between Spenser's Third Period: 1915-1922. England. Period of hardship and unhappiness. Unhappy marriage with Vivienne. 1914: Oxford and London. Eliot meets Pound who introduces him to the artistic London circles and encourages him to settle in England. 1915 Marries Vivienne Haigh-Wood. "I came to persuade myself that I was in love with Vivienne simply because I wanted to burn my boats and commit myself to staying in England. And she persuaded herself (also under the influence of Pound) that she would save the poet by keeping him in England. To her, the marriage brought no happiness. To me, it brought the state of mind out of which came The Waste Land."8 ‘Mr. Apollinax’, ‘Hysteria.’ 1916 He finished his PhD on ‘Knowledge and Experience in the Philosophy of F. H. Bradley’. 1917 Starts working at Lloyd’s Bank. 1919 ‘Gerontion’ 1920 Poems. Hand printed by Leonard and Virginia Woolf. 1922: Eliot edits The Criterion (continues working at the Lloyd’s Bank). The Waste Land published in the first issue of The Criterion. 1925: ‘The Hollow Men’ Fourth period 1927: Enters the Church of England. Becomes an English citizen. ‘Journey of the Magi’ 1930: ‘Ash-Wednesday’, ‘Marina’. 1932: Makes his decision to leave his wife (died 1947). Begins his attempt at reviving poetic drama with Sweney Agonistes. 1935-1942: Four Quartets. II. Influences - Irving Babbitt’s traditionalism: against romantic originality and passion, Babitt defended reason, restraint; against the values of liberal humanism, he defended aristocratic values.9 - Charles Maurras: an anti-Semite and antidemocrat who defended hierarchy. - Francis Herbert Bradley’s Appearance and Reality (1893).10 8 T.S. Eliot, The Letters of T. S. Eliot, Volume 1, 1898–1922 (London: Faber and Faber. 1988), p. xvii. 9 - Eliot sympathized with some of Babitt’s ideas insofar as they coincided with his cult of tradition and his rejection of bourgeois individualism. At the same time, he saw Babbitt’s project of a new kind of humanism as just one more of the current attempts to make sense of human existence after the loss of religious faith. o Double dimension: comprehensive consciousness (“reality” = the Real) vs individual consciousness (appearance). o Holism vs. fragmentation. o Questions concerning: ▪ The relationship between consciousness and the real world. ▪ The relationship between different consciousnesses. o Scepticism and idealism. - Baudelaire o The city poet o Ennui – boredom - Tristan Corbière.11 Disdain for Romantic sentimentalism. - Laforgue: prototype of the poet for Eliot o The poetic possibilities of the sickly modern being. o The ironic handling of dramatic monologues. Let us go then, you and I The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock. III. Modernist devaluation of ordinary life - Mechanic repetition. - Chaos. Loss of meaning of symbols and rituals But at my back from time to time I hear The sound of horns and motors, which shall bring Sweeney to Mrs. Porter in the spring. O the moon shone bright on Mrs. Porter And on her daughter They wash their feet in soda water. Et, O ces voix d’enfants, chantant dans la coupole! Twit twit twit Jug jug jug jug jug jug The Waste Land - Fragmentation the burnt-out butt ends of smoky days Prelude I What are the roots that clutch, what branches grow Out of this stony rubbish? Son of man, You cannot say, or guess, for you know only A heap of broken images, where the sun beats, And the dead tree gives no shelter, the cricket no relief, And the dry stone no sound of water. The Waste Land IV. The Main problem: The question of order. Eliot’s traditionalism and subjectivism. 10 A Hegelian who, according to Slavoj Zizek, “interpreted the social logic of Hegel’s concrete universality as demanding the identification of each individual with his/her specific post within the defined and hierarchical Whole of the global social body – this, precisely, is what the modern notion of subjectivity precludes” (The Ticklish Subject, 93-94; emphasis mine). 11 French poet admired by the Symbolists. Corbière was almost unknown until Paul Verlaine included him in his list of poètes maudits. He only published Les amours jaunes (1873), a collection of poems that highly influenced Eliot. See Frank Kermode’s ‘Introduction’ to The Waste Land and Other Poems (Penguin Classics, 2003). o Rejection of the liberal humanist tradition and its notion of subjectivity.12 Highly self-conscious characters but powerless to act (‘Prufrock’) or represent ordinary reality. This is the reaction of the ‘protagonist’ of The Waste Land when the reality appears before him as it is Unreal City, Under the brown fog of a winter dawn, A crowd flowed over London Bridge, so many, I had not thought death had undone so many. The Waste Land o Fragmentation and search for order. ▪ Subjectivism and traditionalism vs. conventional values, mechanization, and the chaos of the contemporary world. • Search for authority in traditional values (Stephen Spender). • Idea of collective unconscious where the collective identity still lives, and the possibilities of renewal lie (Eagleton). ▪ Strong subjective position: The fleeting moment of (negative) vision. The “overwhelming question”. ▪ Only a certain organization of images can give a glimpse of another dimension of reality (whole, order). These fragments I have shored against my ruins Why then Ile fit you. Hieronymo’s mad againe. The Waste Land V. Poetics of impersonality - Elision of individual consciousness The morning comes to consciousness Of faint stale smells of beer From the sawdust-trampled street With all its muddy feet that press To early coffee-stands. ‘Prelude II’ You lay upon your back, and waited; You dozed, and watched the night revealing The thousand sordid images Of which your soul was constituted; They flickered against the ceiling. ‘Prelude III.’ - Voice(s). Main features through The Waste Land 1. The void and the vortex: The poem explores a sense of emptiness and chaos in the modern world. The "void" and the "vortex" symbolize the disconnection and lack of understanding between individuals and their environment. 12 Modernists were aware that, rather than free agents, individuals are subject to impersonal forces (the unconscious, ideology, class struggle) that dominate them.