Understanding Written Language: The Role of Formal Elements and Structure, Esquemas y mapas conceptuales de Historia

¡Descarga Understanding Written Language: The Role of Formal Elements and Structure y más Esquemas y mapas conceptuales en PDF de Historia solo en Docsity! 2021 TEMARIO OPOSICIONES WRITTEN COMMUNICATION: STRUCTURE AND FORMAL ELEMENTS. NORMS THAT RULE THE WRITTEN TEXT. ROUTINES AND FORMULAE. TOPIC 6 TOPIC 6: WRITTEN COMMUNICATION: STRUCTURE AND FORMAL ELEMENTS. NORMS THAT RULE THE WRITTEN TEXT. ROUTINES AND FORMULAE. 1. INTRODUCTION 2. FUNCTIONS OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE 3. TYPES OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE 4. FORMAL ELEMENTS AND STRUCTURE OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE 5. RULES FOR WRITING 6. RULES FOR READING 7. ROUTINES AND FORMULAE 8. CONCLUSION 9. BIBLIOGRAPHY 5 3. The contact function, which serves to keep the channel of communication open, to maintain contact with the reader. 2. FUNCTIONS OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE People had been making visual images for hundreds of generations so it was natural to exploit this ability and map the visual representations on to language. This enabled language to satisfy a new range of functional demands. Writing was used for making an astronomical and inventorying property. for collecting taxes, for records, for codifying the laws. etc. But once it had come to existence, it also took over some functions that had previously been fulfilled by spoken language: religious, literary and oratorical. And writing took over the main burden of the transmission of cultural knowledge: "education" came into being. We are so surrounded now by written language that we can hardly conceive of life without it. Because it is so pervasive that we are inclined to take for granted that everybody is using written language all the time. We read for action (and interaction), for information, and for entertainment: 1. For action: - Public signs; for example on roads and stations, - Product labels and instruction: for example on food, tools or toys purchased. - Recipes, maps, television and radio guides, bills, menus, telephone directories, ballot papers, computer manuals, monitors and printouts. - For social contact: personal correspondence: letters, postcards, greetings, etc. 2. For information: - Newspapers (news, editorials and current affairs) - Magazines; hobby magazines; Reports; guidebooks - Non-fiction books, including textbooks; - Public notices; advertisements; political pamphlets; scholastic medical, etc. 3. For Entertainment: 6 - Light magazines, comic strips; fiction books; - Poetry and drama; newspaper features; film subtitles; - Games, including computer games. The categories are not clear cut, what is for information now may be for action later, what is instructional may also have entertainment value and so on. 3. TEXT TYPES What do we mean by text? We can define text, in the simplest way perhaps, by saying that it is language that is functional. By functional we simply mean language that is doing some job in some context, as opposed to isolated words or sentences. A text type is an idealized norm of a distinctive text structure which serves as a matrix of rules and elements for the encoder when responding linguistically to specific aspects of his experience. The encoder can choose between five text types: description, narration, exposition, argumentation, and instruction. 3.1 Description Description is the type of textual communication in which the encoder more or less selectively deals with factual phenomena in space. It is the text type related to the cognitive process of perception in space. The text base of a descriptive text can be reduced to the length and structural constituents of the sentences used to register simple phenomena: "Thousands of glasses were on the tables." The text idiom (style) in which descriptive texts manifest themselves is constituted by phenomenon-registering sentences (and their variants) in sequence. It is often found within other genres, as narrative. 3.2 Narration Narration is the type of textual communication in which the encoder more or less selectively deals with factual and/or conceptual phenomena in time. It is the text type related to the cognitive process of perception in time. The text base of a narrative text can be reduced to the length and structural constituents of the (non- 7 continuous) sentences used to record simple actions: “ The passengers landed in London at midnight". The text idiom (style) of narrative texts is constituted by action-recording sentences (and their variants) in sequence. The storytelling tradition divides narrative texts into: setting, action and resolution. 3.3 Exposition Exposition is the type of textual communication which the encoder chooses for presenting either constituent elements (components) which can be synthesized into a composite concept (manifested in a ‘term’) or a mental construct (manifested in a ‘text’), or those constituent elements (components) into which concepts or mental constructs of phenomena can be analysed. The encoder thus explains how the component elements interrelate in a meaningful whole. This is the text type related to the cognitive process of comprehension. The text base of an expository text can be reduced to the length and structural constituents of one or two sentence types: (1) Sentences used to identify simple phenomena: "One part of the brain is the cortex or rind." (2) Sentences used to link simple phenomena: " The brain has ten million neurons." The text idiom (style) of expository texts is constituted by phenomenon-identifying and phenomenon-linking sentences (and their variants) in sequence. 3.4 Argumentation Argumentation is the type of textual communication in which the encoder proposes relations between concepts of phenomena. The encoder makes his propositions in explicit or implicit opposition to deviant or alternative propositions. Argumentation is the text type related to the cognitive process of judging in answer to a problem. The text base of an argumentative text can be reduced to the length and structural constituents of the sentences used to attribute some quality: "The obsession with durability in the arts is not permanent." 10 which can be taken out on loan. In addition, there is a reference section of over 6.000 volumes." Here are some examples of the different types of logical devices: a. Addition: again, also, and, besides, equally, in addition, moreover, etc. b. Comparison: compared with, in the same way, similarly, likewise, etc. c. Contrast and concession: but, however, in contrast, instead, while, whereas. d. Enumeration: First(ly), second(ly), finally, to begin with, then, next, last, etc. e. Exemplification: for example, for instance, such as, thus, etc. f. Inference: if not ..., in that case that implies, otherwise, then, etc. g. Summary: in all, in brief, in short, in conclusion, on the whole, to sum up, etc. h. Time: after, before, in the end, since, so far, meanwhile, at the same time, etc. i. Result: accordingly, as a result, consequently, therefore, for that reason, etc. j. Reformulation: in other words, rather, that is (to say), etc k. Replacement: again, alternatively, (better) still, on the other hand, etc. 2.b Grammatical devices are equally important for the cohesion of the text. These include signal relationships between sentences by means of back reference or anaphora, as in the following example by Byrne: “Electricity is the most useful form of energy there is. It is easy to use; it can be transmitted over long distances. " Where it refers in both cases to electricity. 2.c Lexical devices, Byrne remarks that "Almost any text displays a great deal of cohesion on a lexical level. To some extent this might be felt to be inevitable, but nevertheless this is another significant way in which sentences are linked together." 11 This means that key words are often repeated for the sake of clarity and synonymous words or phrases are also used to achieve this level of lexical cohesion. Taking into account the above mentioned facts, the writing programme requires, that we give our students extensive practice in using these devices after having tried to make them understand their importance and how they work. Probably, the best thing to be done is to introduce them little by little, but in a systematic way. Here are some examples of these grammatical and lexical devices: a. Pronominal forms to replace noun phrases: "John and Mary are going on holiday to Brazil. Their friends are very envious." b. Use of grammatical forms to replace adverbials (noun phrases of time and place): "I decided to take my book to the library. When I got there I found it was closed’ c. Use of pronominal forms to replace clauses or sentences: “John has just resigned. It was quite unexpected. " d. Use of determiners (the, this, that, etc) to refer back to a previous noun phrase: “I bought a pocket calculator last year. The calculator has proved very useful." Former and later are used to refer back to one of the previous noun phrase. e. Repetition of key words: "These particular train services are not used very much by commuters. As a rule, commuters tend to travel much earlier.” f. Use of synonyms to avoid repetition: "If you have any thoughts on the subject, please let me know. I shall be interested to hear your ideas." g. Use of a construction implying whole part or whole relationship: "Large cars and lorries are not advised to use this route. These vehicles should take the other road’. h. Use of related word forms: "Seven people have been arrested so far. The arrests were made late last night." 4.2 Structure 12 According to Van Dijck, the relationship between sentence and proposition is not considered in isolation, but taking into account that the connections are based on the text as whole, or at least on higher textual units. We call, then, macrostructures to these global structures; and microstructures to those group of sentences and sequences of texts, i.e. to smaller textual units in order to differentiate them from the former structures. The hypothesis in which this is based says: “Only the sequences of sentences which belong to a macrostructure will be termed (theoretically) texts" The macrostructure is considered to be of semantic nature, that is, we could say that the macrostructure of a text is an abstract representation of the global meaning of a text. So while sequences should follow the conditions for lineal coherence, texts not only should follow these conditions but also those of global coherence. The term macrostructure is relative, in the sense that it refers to a relative global structure in respect to those more specific occurring in a lower level. We can deduce then, that what in a text could be considered as a microstructure, it could be a macrostructure in others. Each macrostructure should follow the same conditions for semantic connectivity and coherence of lower micro-structural levels (referential identity, connections of conditions between propositions, etc.). 5. RULES FOR WRITING It is important to know how we get the macrostructure of a text, that is, what condition allows macrostructure of a text. In this sense, rules for the union between macro and microstructures have the form of semantic transformations, and we will name them as macro-rules. Macro-rules are a reconstruction of that part of our linguistic capacity with which we link meanings in bigger significant units. lf we consider that propositions are the abstract representation of what we call information; this process implies reduction of the information, so we could 15 shared superconcept which defines the whole. The difference between rule number one and this consists in that we omit here several characteristics which are not casual but essential features of the referents. In generalizations of this type it is produced what we normally call “abstraction". The sense of this rule is that the most particular features of a group of objects are relatively less important in the macro-level. 4. Construction or integration: The information is substituted for a new one not being omitted or selected. Here, there is also an inherent relationship between the concepts, expressed by the group of propositions which form the ‘input’ of the rule: habitual conditions, circumstances, etc. of a situation, happening or action. The text could have on its own a group of these aspects, so that they can form together a more general concept. For example: 1. "I went to the station" 2. "l bought a ticket" 3. "l went up the platform" 4. "l got into the train" 5. "The train left" These propositions define in their totality the following one: "l got the train" The propositions 1-5 are elements of our conventional knowledge. That is, they are within the frame of "TRAVELLING BY TRAIN". This concept doesn’t have to be necessarily expressed in the text, we could deduce this connection from the text in which the necessary components are provided. We can see clearly in this rule that the principle of semantic implication in which we based the previous rules, does not need to be applied in a strict logical way, because it is normally applied in an inductive habitual way. For example, if we receive the following information: "l went to the station and l went to Paris" We can deduce that somebody got into the train which goes to Paris, although this weren’t the logical consequence taken from the given information. 16 As a conclusion we can add a general limitation, that is how ‘strong’ these rules are and how frequently they could be applied. So that, we should make some kind of abstraction and generalization of the text in a certain way in which the ‘genuine’ content of the text may not be lost. This requires the rules operating as limited as possible, choosing a superconcept directly superior in which the resultant macro-proposition is obtained from the immediate implication or the given propositions, making the information specific enough, avoiding to reach the point of summarizing a text in for example, ’somebody did something with somebody’ 6. RULES FOR READING Each word, each well-formed sentence, and every well-formed text passage is said to have a meaning. Meaning is often conceived to be in the utterance or text, to have a separate, independent existence from both the speaker or writer and the "listener or reader. Also in this view, failures to comprehend a non-defective communication are always attributed to language-specific deficits, perhaps a word was not in the reader’s vocabulary, a rule of grammar was misapplied, and so on. Recent empirical research in the field which has come to be known as schema theory has demonstrated the truth of Kant’s original observation ("He claimed that new information, new concepts, new ideas can have meaning only when they can be related to something the individual already Knows"). Schema theory research has shown the importance of background knowledge within a psycholinguistic model of reading. 1. PSYCHOLINGUISTIC MODEL OF READING. Goodman has described reading as a "Psycholinguistic guessing game in which the reader reconstructs, as best as he can, a message which has been encoded by a writer as a graphic display. Reading is a process in which the reader picks and chooses from the available information only enough to select and predict a language structure which is decodable. In this model the reader need not use all the textual cues. The better the reader is able to make correct predictions, the less visual perceptual information the reader requires. 17 Coady has suggested a model based on this psycholinguistic model in which the reader’s background knowledge interacts with conceptual abilities (general intellectual capacity) and process strategies to produce comprehension. By processing strategies, he means various subcomponents of reading ability, including many which are also more general language. Background knowledge: according to Clark and Silberstein, "More information is contributed by the reader than by the print on the page". That is, readers understand what they read because they are able to take the stimulus beyond its graphic representation and assign it membership to an appropriate group of concepts already stored in their memories. The reader brings the task a formidable amount of information and ideas, attitudes and beliefs. This knowledge, coupled with the ability to make linguistic predictions determines the expectations the reader will develop as he reads. 2. THE SCHEMA THEORY MODEL According to the schema theory, a text only provide directions for listeners or readers as to how they should recall or construct meaning from their own previously acquired knowledge. This is called the reader’s background knowledge, and the previously acquired knowledge structures are called schemata. According to this theory, comprehending a text is an interactive process between the reader’s background knowledge and the text. Efficient comprehension requires the ability to relate the textual material to one’s own knowledge. The process of interpretation is guided by the principle that every input is mapped against some existing schema and that all aspects of that schema must be compatible with the input information. This principle results into two basic modes of information processing, called bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing refers to the use of incoming data as a source of information about the meaning of a message. The features of the data enter the system through the best fitting, bottom-level schemata. Schemata are hierarchically organized, from most general at the top to most specific at the bottom. As these bottom-level schemata converge into a higher level, more 20 According to the CEFR, the development of the communicative and pragmatic competences are emphasized. Section 4.5 of CEFR lists the processes that come into play when we communicate, making references to the four skills. RD 1105/2014 (LOMCE) has established this organization of contents into four blocks which coincide with the four skills at a national level. Therefore, the newest trends and legal references are giving more and more prominence to the four skills in order to organize contents when learning a foreign language. It should be noticed that referring to writing they distinguish between interacting (for examples, chats) and writing individually. Regarding writing skills, there is a need to create classroom conditions which match those in real life and foster acquisition, encouraging reading and writing. Some of this motivational force is brought about by intervening in authentic communicative events. The Ministry of Education proposed several projects within the framework of the European Union: - Erasmus+: way to experience socio-cultural patters in the target country and establish personal relationships which may lead to keep in contact through writing skills. - Plumier: uses multimedia resources in classroom setting where learners are expected to interpret and produce meaning with members of the target language. - E-twinning: The eTwinning action promotes school collaboration in Europe through the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). Students will have e-pals to practise the language. The way reading and writing are being taught is changing dramatically with the new technological devices. The word processor is an important tool for writing, so we should make sure our students can use it and provide them with activities in this sense. The emphasis is nowadays on the use of multimedia (tablets, mobile phones, laptops and computers) to promote language in context: reading realia in the net, writing emails, application forms, etc. Educational applications such as "busuu" or "learn English" can be downloaded in your mobile phones or tablets easily and are very effective. The use of e-books and interactive whiteboards is also 21 motivating and offers many possibilities for these skills. Reading and writing in blogs or social networks make our students very excited about acquiring these skills. However, we should not leave apart another effective paper resource: graded readers. New trends in methodology make writing and reading practice integrated with other skills such as listening, and not isolated. We will provide our students with different strategies in order to develop these skills. Attention to diversity should be taken into account in both skills. Guided writing is essential, specially for low level students, as we provide guidelines, linguistic structures and steps to ease the task. Lower level students can begin filling in gaps and reordering sentences, to go on writing sentences and finally paragraphs and texts with expressions to be used and models to be followed. Reading can also be graded in the sense that we can grade the activities proposed: lower level students can answer true-false sentences or clues to answer questions, for instance, whereas higher level students can answer open questions. Different techniques will be handled for different purposes: scanning, skimming, reading aloud, etc. Cooperative reading and writing activities and the use of tablets and computers can be very useful in this sense. 9. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND WEBLIOGRAPHY -Allen J.P.B and Davies A. ,The Edinburgh Course in Applied Linguistics, OUP 1977. -Byrne D., Teaching Writing Skills, Longman 1982. - Carrell, Patricia L. and Esiterhold, Joan C. "Schema Theory an Esl Reading Pedagogy", article from the book The Modern Language Journal. First published online in 2011. - Dale, Liz/Tanner, Rosie, Clil Activities. A Resource for Subject and Language Teachers, CUP, 2012. - Kuhles, Emma, Writing Skills , Delta Publishing, 2012. - Kuhles, Emma, Reading Skills , Delta Publishing, 2012. 22 - Strasser, Thomas, Mind the App, Helbling language, 2012. -Van Dijck and Teun A." La Ciencia del Texto. Un Enfoque Interdisciplinario" . Article read in Van Dijck´s website: http://www.discourses.org/ - http.//www.eduapps.es/ : guía de aplicaciones educativas