Translating Vague Words in Conrad's Heart of Darkness to Spanish using Corpus Approach, Apuntes de Inglés

¡Descarga Translating Vague Words in Conrad's Heart of Darkness to Spanish using Corpus Approach y más Apuntes en PDF de Inglés solo en Docsity! Anuario de Estudios Filológicos, ISSN 0210-8178, vol. XLI, 2018, 157-174 1ª Prueba GRAMMATICAL WORDS DENOTING VAGUENESS IN JOSEPH CONRAD’S HEART OF DARKNESS AND THEIR TRANSLATIONS INTO SPANISH: A CORPUS APPROACH Pablo Ruano San Segundo y Paloma Pizarro Seijas Universidad de Extremadura Abstract In this article we use corpus tools to analyse two translations into Spanish of Heart of Darkness, the first made by García Ríos and Sánchez Araujo ([1976] 2005) and the second made by Diéguez Rodríguez (2002). Specifically, we examine the extent to which the two Spanish versions faithfully maintain the salient use of the grammatical words some, somebody, somehow, someone, something, sometimes and somewhere, which in the English text are profusely used to convey the well-known blurry atmosphere that dominates the story (Stubbs, 2005). In the first place, the frequency of these words in Heart of Darkness will be compared with their presence in a reference corpus formed by the rest of Conrad’s novels. Then, thanks to the use of an aligned parallel corpus containing the English text and the two Span- ish versions, the Spanish translators’ rendering of the every grammatical word will be systematically scrutinized. The aim of the analysis is to show whether micro-textual shifts take place in the Spanish versions and, if so, their effects from a stylistic point of view. Keywords: Heart of Darkness, vagueness, grammatical words, corpus approach, translation. ANÁLISIS DE LA ATMÓSFERA NEBULOSA A TRAVÉS DE LAS PALABRAS GRAMATICALES EN DOS TRADUCCIONES ESPAÑOLAS DE HEART OF DARKNESS, DE JOSEPH CONRAD: UN ESTUDIO DE CORPUS Resumen En este artículo se analizan, utilizando herramientas de corpus, las traducciones al español de Heart of Darkness llevadas a cabo por García Ríos and Sánchez Araujo ([1976] 2005) y Diéguez Rodríguez (2002). De forma más concreta, el estudio se centra en medir el grado de fidelidad de ambas versiones a la hora de mantener el uso de some, somebody, somehow, someone, something, sometimes and somewhere, que en el texto inglés desempeñan, Fecha de recepción: 26 de febrero de 2017 Fecha de aceptación: 28 de junio de 2018 158 Pablo Ruano San Segundo y Paloma Pizarro Seijas Grammatical words… 1ª Prueba AEF, vol. XLI, 2018, 157-174 debido a su alta frecuencia, un papel decisivo en la creación de la atmósfera nebulosa que domina la historia (Stubbs, 2005). En primer lugar, la frecuencia de estas palabras en Heart of Darkness será comparada con su presencia en un corpus de referencia for- mado por el resto de novelas de Conrad. A continuación, utilizando un corpus paralelo formado por el texto inglés y las dos traducciones objeto de análisis, se analizará de forma sistemática la traducción al español de cada uno de los ejemplos localizados. De esta manera, será posible calibrar las implicaciones que las distintas opciones escogidas por los traductores acarrean desde un punto de vista estilístico. Palabras clave: Heart of Darkness, lenguaje vago, palabras gramaticales, enfoque de corpus, traducción. 1. Introduction The use of corpus approaches in traditional descriptive translation studies is not new (see Laviosa, 2013). In fact, it can be traced back some twenty- five years ago, when Baker promoted the use of corpus methodologies «to uncover the nature of translated texts as a mediated communicative event» (Baker, 1993: 243). However, these approaches are becoming more sophisti- cated, as scholars learn more about, and refine, methods and areas of ap- plication1. One of the areas of application in which corpus approaches are being used with increased frequency is literary translation analyses. Indeed, the conflation of corpus translation studies and disciplines such as corpus stylistics has made it possible to analyze literary translations using corpus methods. For example, the translated works of F. Scott Fitzgerald (Winters, 2005), Miguel de Cervantes (Ji, 2012), James Joyce (Patton & Can, 2012), John Irving (Čermáková, 2015) and Charles Dickens (Ruano San Segundo, 2017) into German, Chinese, Turkish, Czech and Finnish (Čermáková, 2015) and Spanish respectively have been explored from this perspective. This article is intended to contribute another example to this branch of translation stud- ies, which could be labelled corpus literary translation studies. We analyze two Spanish translations of Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, one by García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo ([1976] 2005) and the other by Diéguez Rodríguez (2002)2. Specifically, we examine whether and to what extent the two versions maintain the salient use of the grammatical words some, somebody, somehow, someone, something, sometimes and somewhere, which in the English novel are used to convey vagueness. For example: 1 The use of corpus methods in translation studies include, among many others, the works of Baker (2004), Kruger, Wallmach & Munday (2011), Zanettin (2012) and Sánchez Nieto (2015). For a comprehensive overview of corpus translation studies, see Laviosa (2013). 2 The main reason for choosing these two versions is that they were readily accessible to us and we could digitize them in order to create the aligned parallel corpus that we used to carry out the analysis (see Section 3). Other than that, any other Spanish translation of the novel would have been as suitable for analysis as the two scrutinized here. Grammatical words… Pablo Ruano San Segundo y Paloma Pizarro Seijas 161 1ª Prueba AEF, vol. XLI, 2018, 157-174 3. Methodology This section is divided into two parts. First, the retrieval of some from Heart of Darkness and the rest of Conrad’s works is carried out. Then, the identification of the translation of some by García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo (2005) and Diéguez Rodríguez (2002) is explained. With regard to the re- trieval of some from Conrad’s works, on the one hand, a computer-assisted methodology was used. Specifically, the software tool WordSmith Tools 7 (Scott, 2016) was employed to identify the occurrences of the different grammati- cal words from Conrad’s texts5. All these words share the root some-. This feature makes their simultaneous retrieval possible with the concordance search some*, since the asterisk replaces any character or group of characters in the concordance option in WordSmith. Figure 1 shows twenty examples of the 203 hits retrieved after some* from Heart of Darkness: Figure 1. Screenshot showing 20 of the 203 hits retrieved after some* in Heart of Darkness. 5 Both Heart of Darkness and the remainder of Conrad’s novels were downloaded from the Project Gutenberg website. Page numbers throughout the article, however, refer to the Penguin Modern Classics edition (Conrad, 1973). 162 Pablo Ruano San Segundo y Paloma Pizarro Seijas Grammatical words… 1ª Prueba AEF, vol. XLI, 2018, 157-174 These 203 hits confirm Stubbs’s (2005: 10) assertion that there are «over 200 occurrences of something, somebody, sometimes, somewhere, somehow and some», whose retrieval from the text is not explained by Stubbs. Specifically, the 203 occurrences of some correspond to seven different words: some, somebody, somehow, someone6, something, sometimes and somewhere. They are distributed as shown in Table 1. Table 1. Occurrences of Some in Heart of Darkness Word Frequency some 101 somebody 9 someone 1 something 52 somewhere 9 sometimes 24 somehow 7 Total 203 Stubbs (2005: 10) compares his results with those retrieved from two corpora —a 710,000-word corpus of fiction and a one-million-word corpus of written English from the bnc—, showing that some is statistically more significant in Heart of Darkness. Here, however, we opted for comparing the significance of these 203 occurrences with the remainder of Conrad’s novels7, in order to ascertain the saliency of some in Heart of Darkness as a Conradian stylistic feature within the novel. The results obtained from each novel are shown in Table 28. As can be observed, Conrad’s use of some in Heart of Darkness (0.53) is higher than in any of his novels. Actually, it is significantly higher than his average use of some, which stands at 0.36 %. This fact reinforces Stubbs’s findings and demonstrates the stylistic significance9 of some in Heart of Dark- 6 Someone is not mentioned by Stubbs, even though it occurs once in the novel: «“Don’t! Don’t you frighten them away”, cried someone on deck disconsolately» (Conrad, 1973: 97). 7 Essays, stories and collections of short stories were not included in the reference corpus. His well-known collaborations with Ford Madox Ford were not included either, for obvious reasons. 8 In addition to some, somebody, somehow, someone, something, sometimes and somewhere, several occurrences of somewhat were also found. Needless to say, these occurrences were not ruled out. 9 Stylistic significance is understood here as a frequency deviance which results in liter- ary foregrounding, following Leech & Short’s (2007: 39) notion of style. Grammatical words… Pablo Ruano San Segundo y Paloma Pizarro Seijas 163 1ª Prueba AEF, vol. XLI, 2018, 157-174 ness, thereby pointing at the importance of preserving it when translating the novel into other languages. With regard to the identification of the Spanish translations of these 203 occurrences of some in Heart of Darkness, on the other hand, the translations by García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo and by Diéguez Rodríguez were examined manually by creating an English-Spanish aligned corpus containing Heart of Darkness and the two translated texts. An excerpt from the corpus containing one occurrence of some is shown in Table 310. The alignment of the three texts makes it possible to gauge systemati- cally how the translators approach this Conradian stylistic feature. However, it also enables a methodical analysis of how each one individually renders the various occurrences of some into Spanish, and a comparison of how the same examples are dealt with in each translation, which can contribute to research on translators’ stylistic preferences. In the case of the example 10 In order to be loaded in a word processor, the two Spanish translations of Heart of Dark- ness had to be converted into plain text files. To do so, the texts were scanned and processed with an ocr (Optical Character Recognition) software (the norm for digitized texts). Needless to say, typographical errors were found. However, they do not affect the search process, since the occurrences of some were manually located using the English text as a reference. Table 2. Hits for Some retrieved from Conrad’s novels Novel Published Words Hits for some* % of some* Almayer’s Folly 1895 12,410 55 0.44 An Outcast of the Islands 1896 107,354 313 0.29 The Nigger of the «Narcissus» 1897 54,802 176 0.32 Heart of Darkness 1899 38,767 203 0.53 Lord Jim 1900 131,481 491 0.37 The End of the Tether 1902 53,066 177 0.33 Typhoon 1902 31,469 115 0.36 Nostromo 1904 171,217 486 0.28 The Secret Agent 1907 90,770 280 0.30 Under Western Eyes 1911 112,799 496 0.43 Chance 1913 138,638 606 0.43 Victory 1915 118,528 477 0.40 The Shadow Line 1917 39,940 166 0.41 The Arrow of Gold 1919 108,248 473 0.43 The Rescue 1920 134,758 424 0.31 166 Pablo Ruano San Segundo y Paloma Pizarro Seijas Grammatical words… 1ª Prueba AEF, vol. XLI, 2018, 157-174 tion which, in our view, would have preserved the role conveyed by the use of some. The six examples discussed will not only illustrate the literary loss when some is not rendered faithfully11, they will also demonstrate that, if grammatical words are not translated accurately, it is not so much because they are difficult to translate but because translators do not seem to notice their stylistic significance in the source text. The first example to be analyzed involves the occurrence of some in the prepositional phrase «in some way» shown in (2). This phrase is used to convey vagueness. It makes it clear that those who accuse the native of caus- ing a fire which burnt down a shed could not demonstrate how he did it or whether he caused it at all, thereby amplifying the unreliable knowledge that dominates the story. (2) A nigger was being beaten near by. They said he had caused the fire in some way; be that as it may, he was screeching most horribly (Conrad, 1973: 34). This unreliable knowledge is faithfully maintained in the version by García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo, as can be observed in (2a). Their use of de alguna manera preserves, through a literal translation, the vagueness intended by Conrad’s prepositional phrase, as alguna is pragmatically equivalent to some12. In the version by Diéguez Rodríguez, however, there is no trace of this unreliable knowledge from the original text. As can be seen in (2b), the prepositional phrase is omitted, nullifying the unknown cause and, con- sequently, the vagueness conveyed by Conrad through the use of some. It is clear, then, that the translation of (2) by García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo is more accurate from a stylistic point of view. (2a) Estaban azotando a un negro cerca de allá. Decían que él había pro- vocado el incendio de alguna manera; sea como fuere, estaba dando horribles alaridos (García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo, 2005: 51). (2b) Cerca de allí estaban golpeando a un negro. Decían que él era el culpable del incendio; tanto si era cierto como si no, lo cierto es que sus gritos eran espantosos (Diéguez Rodríguez, 2002: 53). The second example to be analyzed involves the occurrence of some shown in (3), which illustrates the undefined timescale of the story, as mentioned in 11 Throughout this section, faithfulness should be understood within the framework of pragmatic equivalence discussed by Rabadán (1991) or Baker (2011: 217), among others. 12 This is the definition of alguna according to the Dictionary of the Spanish Royal Acad- emy (Diccionario de la Real Academia): «alguno, na. 1. adj. indef. Expresa que no se conoce o no se desvela la existencia de aquello denotado por el nombre al que modifica» [indefinite adjective; used to express that the existence of the noun which it modifies is neither known nor specified (our translation)]. Grammatical words… Pablo Ruano San Segundo y Paloma Pizarro Seijas 167 1ª Prueba AEF, vol. XLI, 2018, 157-174 Section 2. This occurrence of some is used to quantify, in a blurry way, the time Marlow spent repairing his steamer; Marlow cannot recall how long it took him to repair the boat, but only that it «took some months». (3) As a matter of fact, I had plenty to do in fishing my command out of the river. I had to set about it the very next day. That, and the repairs when I brought the pieces to the station, took some months (Conrad, 1973: 30). In this case, it is the translation by García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo which does not maintain the vagueness observed in the original. As can be seen in (3a), they provide a word-by-word translation of the sentence «That, and the repairs when I brought the pieces to the station, took some months» [«Esto y las reparaciones cuando hube traído los trozos a la estación, lle- varon meses»], except for the grammatical word some («took some months» [«llevaron meses»]). It is true that llevaron meses does not make the number of months explicit or any clearer. Nevertheless, the omission of some elimi- nates the emphasis observed in the original, which helps to reinforce the imprecise timescale. This emphasis is not lost in the translation by Diéguez Rodríguez. As can be seen in (3b), he maintains the vagueness conveyed by some by using the Spanish pragmatically equivalent algunos. This option is not only linguistically more faithful to the original, but also more accurate from a stylistic point of view, as it highlights, like the original text, Marlow’s difficulties in recalling the exact number of months that took him to repair the steamer. (3a) En realidad, tenía bastante con sacar mi barco del río. Me tuve que poner a ello al día siguiente. Esto y las reparaciones cuando hube traído los trozos a la estación, llevaron meses (García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo, 2005: 47). (3b) En realidad, supuso bastante trabajo sacarlo del río, tarea que debí emprender al día siguiente. Eso y las reparaciones necesarias, una vez que conseguí que llevaran los repuestos a la delegación, me llevaron algunos meses (Diéguez Rodríguez, 2002: 47). The frequency with which some is omitted is significantly different in each version. In the translation by García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo, on the one hand, nine omissions were identified. In the one by Diéguez Rodríguez, on the other hand, up to twenty-seven omissions were found, as shown in Table 4. This naturally results in a substantial difference in terms of how the blurriness is projected, so that the effect is less perceptible in the transla- tion by Diéguez Rodríguez. The nine omissions in the text by García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo, however, also affect the projection of the vagueness which characterizes the English text, as example (3a) has demonstrated. Finally, the fact that translators frequently omit some suggests that they seem not to have noticed the role of these grammatical words; otherwise they would most 168 Pablo Ruano San Segundo y Paloma Pizarro Seijas Grammatical words… 1ª Prueba AEF, vol. XLI, 2018, 157-174 probably have preserved them in Spanish, especially since rendering them into Spanish poses no difficulties for translation, as shown in (2a) and (3b). With regard to the cases in which the translators render some using a word denoting specificity, the examples identified seem less damaging than when the grammatical word is omitted. However, they are more numerous —nineteen instances in the case of García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo and twenty-nine in the case of Diéguez Rodríguez— and they may also entail a significant loss of style. Take for example the occurrence of some in the prepositional phrase «with some sort of action» shown in (4), which corre- sponds to the moment in the story when Marlow and the pilgrims are attacked by the natives and the helmsman is wounded by a spear, dying soon after- wards. Marlow now expects Kurtz to be dead too, and this thought terrifies him. The use of «with some sort of action» helps to reinforce the vagueness when he pictures Kurtz. This, in turn, fits with the blurriness projected by Marlow when he tells the story and gives details of Kurtz, thereby making him appear to be shrouded in mystery, as he seems to Marlow before they finally meet. (4) The man presented himself as a voice. Not of course that I did not connect him with some sort of action. Hadn’t I been told in all the tones of jealousy and admiration that he had collected, bartered, swindled, or stolen more ivory than all the other agents together? That was not the point (Con- rad, 1973: 67). The translation of some in this prepositional phrase poses no difficulties. In fact, García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo maintain the vagueness through the use of the Spanish pragmatically equivalent algún («con algún tipo de ac- tividad»), as can be seen in (4a). This translation preserves the original aura of mystery surrounding Kurtz during Marlow’s tale. In the case of Diéguez Rodríguez, however, a translation denoting specificity was found, as can be observed in (4b). Instead of «with some sort of activity» (con algún tipo de actividad), Diéguez Rodríguez suggests that Marlow did not connect Kurtz with any activity (ninguna actividad). That is, Marlow expresses certainty (even though this certainty consists of categorically denying the sort of activity he is referring to) when he expresses his thoughts about Kurtz. This choice nulli- fies Marlow’s unreliability when he wonders about Kurtz. Thus, even though both versions are almost identical linguistically speaking, it seems clear that the translation by García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo is more accurate from a stylistic point of view, as it preserves the literary value of some. (4a) El hombre se me presentaba como una voz. Naturalmente, no es que no le asociara con algún tipo de actividad. ¿Acaso no me habían dicho en to- dos los tonos posibles de envidia y admiración que él había recogido, trocado, Grammatical words… Pablo Ruano San Segundo y Paloma Pizarro Seijas 171 1ª Prueba AEF, vol. XLI, 2018, 157-174 (6a) Hombres blancos con largos cayados aparecieron lánguidamente entre los edificios, acercándose a mirarme, y después desaparecieron de mi vista (García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo, 2005: 47). (6b) Entre las construcciones vi asomarse, de bastante mala gana, a algu- nos hombres blancos con cayados que se acercaban a comprobar quién era yo y luego desaparecían de mi vista (Diéguez Rodríguez, 2002: 46). This omission of somewhere partially nullifies the vagueness conveyed by Conrad in the original text. Preserving this vagueness, however, would not actually have been complicated. In fact, and even though there is no equiva- lent adverb in Spanish to somewhere, a simple prepositional phrase contain- ing the adjective algún («hacia algún lugar» [«towards some place»]) would have sufficed to achieve a more accurate translation of the excerpt, thereby maintaining the emphasis upon Marlow’s well-known unreliable knowledge. A similar loss was detected in the translation of the occurrence of some shown in (7). The excerpt corresponds to the moment of the story where Marlow is lying on the deck listening to the manager and his uncle talk about Kurtz and the so-called «wandering trader —a pestilential fellow» (Conrad, 1973: 46) who is supposed to be in Kurtz’s district. The uncle does not like him and suggests his nephew get rid of him, as he does not want anyone challenging his authority. Marlow has no clue who this man might be, which is why he refers to him as some man, reinforcing the aura of mystery sur- rounding everything about Kurtz in Marlow’s tale. (7) Who was it they were talking about now? I gathered in snatches that this was some man supposed to be in Kurtz’s district, and of whom the man- ager did not approve (Conrad, 1973: 46). In the two Spanish versions, however, some is translated using a word denoting specificity. Both García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo, on the one hand, and Diéguez Rodríguez, on the other, resort to the indefinite article un [a/an], as can be observed in (7a) and (7b) respectively. This strategy is actu- ally fairly common in the examples found in both versions in which some is translated using a word denoting specificity13. In principle, this choice seems a valid option, since the meaning conveyed is practically the same as in the original text. However, the systematic way in which the indefinite article is used in the two Spanish versions nullifies the stylistic value of some in the English text. In the particular case of (7a) and (7b), for instance, by referring to the character as un hombre [a man], the emphasis on Marlow’s unreliable knowledge indicated by some is lost. Even though the man is still unknown, 13 Specifically, sixteen examples were found in the translation by García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo and twenty-four in the one by Diéguez Rodríguez. 172 Pablo Ruano San Segundo y Paloma Pizarro Seijas Grammatical words… 1ª Prueba AEF, vol. XLI, 2018, 157-174 he is no longer some unknown man, but a specific unknown man. Preserving this emphasis upon Marlow’s unreliable knowledge in Spanish would not have been difficult. For example, the use of the Spanish pragmatically equivalent algún would have created the same effect as in the original («[…] que se trataba de algún hombre que debía […]», for instance), thereby maintaining the Conradian stylistic trait. (7a) Deduje de los fragmentos que se trataba de un hombre que debía estar en el distrito de Kurtz (García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo, 2005: 61). (7b) ¿De quién hablaban ahora? Por lo poco que oí, deduje que se trataba de un hombre que debía de andar cerca de la zona asignada a Kurtz y cuya conducta no aprobaba el director (Diéguez Rodríguez, 2002: 74). In light of these examples, it is clear that if the translators did not main- tain the grammatical words in their versions it is not because a pragmatic equivalence in Spanish, but because they had not noticed the stylistic value of the way in which Conrad used them. To conclude, the occurrences of some analyzed throughout the article have demonstrated how literary translation studies can benefit greatly from the use of corpus approaches. As has been shown, an inconspicuous but stylistically significant element can be identified and analyzed in different translated versions of a literary text using corpus methodologies, gaug- ing whether and to what extent this element is preserved. Specifically, the analysis has demonstrated that neither of the two translations of Heart of Darkness scrutinized here entirely preserves the blurriness conveyed by the different ways in which some is used in the original novel. This is evi- denced by the fact that, to a greater or lesser extent, a significant number of occurrences are either omitted or translated using a word denoting specificity in both versions, which results in a loss of meaning from a sty- listic point of view. This loss is more substantial in the version by Diéguez Rodríguez, in which more occurrences are neglected (see Table 4). However, the cases found in the version by García Ríos & Sánchez Araujo also have an impact on the vagueness conveyed through Conrad’s use of grammatical words, as (3a), (5a), (6a) and (7a) have shown. Finally, the analysis has also demonstrated that the translators did not recognize the role of some, as its rendering into Spanish does not actually pose any difficulties for transla- tion. In sum, the use of a corpus approach to analyze two Spanish versions of Heart of Darkness has shed light on aspects hitherto underexplored from a translating point of view, thereby revealing how seemingly harmless mi- crolinguistic alterations can affect the interpretation of the translated texts from a literary point of view, as some plays a stylistically significant role in the original novel. Grammatical words… Pablo Ruano San Segundo y Paloma Pizarro Seijas 173 1ª Prueba AEF, vol. XLI, 2018, 157-174 6. Conclusion This article has set out to illustrate the potential of corpus approaches in the analysis of translated literary texts. As has been shown, a corpus methodology has made it possible to gauge the saliency of some in Heart of Darkness against the backdrop of a corpus of Conrad’s novels, thus ascertain- ing its stylistic value in Heart of Darkness. This methodology has also made it possible to analyze systematically how the two Spanish translations render the 203 occurrences of some, somebody, somehow, someone, something, sometimes and somewhere, which play a significant role in creating the blurry atmosphere dominating the English novel. The corpus approach adopted has allowed a level of precision which would have been almost impossible to achieve manually, making it possible to measure the degree to which both versions maintain a subtle stylistic trait of the novel. Finally, we hope that this article has also outlined a framework which could have broader applicability beyond the analysis of some in Spanish. To name but one example, the translation of seem, like and other aspects relevant to the well-known blurriness which dominates the story (see Sec- tion 2) can be also scrutinized using corpus approaches. These could help obtain a comprehensive picture of whether and to what extent blurriness is preserved in translated versions of the novel, either in Spanish or in any other language. References Baker, M. (1993): «Corpus Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications». En Baker, M., Francis, G. & Tognini-Bonelli, E.: Text and Technology: In Honour of John Sinclair. 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