Indian Land and British Colonies: Recognition of Indian Tribes and Indian Policy, Apuntes de Filología Inglesa

¡Descarga Indian Land and British Colonies: Recognition of Indian Tribes and Indian Policy y más Apuntes en PDF de Filología Inglesa solo en Docsity! HISTORIA Y CULTURA DE LOS ESTADOS UNIDOS Spain was the first colonizer of the United States, not England. They had colonies in the south east. The center of the colonizer activity was New Mexico, which progressed east and westwards. The French colonized more or less at the same time as British and Dutch. Dutch concentrated in New York. French colonized the Great Arch, the Great Lakes and what is now Canada. Colonies were forced out of North America. In Delaware a Swedish colony was established. In the 1660’s Dutch colonies were absorbed by the English. The French managed to stay in the colonized land. They did not emigrate in large numbers. They showed themselves more hostile towards the French than to the Spanish, who tried to change religious cultures. Huguenots were not permitted to emigrate to Canada – the French were eliminated in the great war for empire in 1756-1763. A great Anglo French confrontation took place, which the English won. 1763 marks the end of an era. It is a very crucial date. After that date the British and Spanish monarchs begin to increase their military powers. Their defense depended totally in the military militia (local militia). Merchants, farmers, fishermen… formed what we know as local militia. They took the highest weight. Charles III brings the enlightenment reform, which was modernizing. It also meant more physical pressure. Both monarchs resulted that they would not be victorious unless they fused their powers. Professional armies began to be formed and recruited in America. Not huge armies. Militia was extraordinarily important. There was a huge geographical ignorance. Most of North America was not mapped. Maps were confusing. There were multitude of disputes within colonies about limits of my/your land. Disputes within North, South Carolina, etc. Joe’s and Peter’s farm… boundaries of territory possession, which meant a huge problem. One of the reasons for emigrating to North America was that they were offered a vast amount of land apparently empty and rich in resources, and available. Most land was in hands of aristocracy or church. Social and economic horizon: invest, buy land. Old regime in Europe land brought social prestige. You could ascend socially. Social status was paid with land. It was very difficult for newcomers to obtain land. North America presented itself as a huge opportunity to obtain land, so with economic independence comes the strength to fight for political rights. This was also a huge attraction for governing classes in Britain. They considered colonies as excellent places for their large population to go and be productive. There were many jobless men, which were potentially dangerous because they meant decivilization. There was a certain coming together of objectives, similarity, convergence of different people, different desires. Indians: on the whole, the British colonies did not have respect for Indian land. At the beginning they did respect Indian tribes, establishment of the dynamics of recognizing Indian tribes as legitimate political entities. Then came negotiation. They negotiated treaties with representatives of Indian tribes. Indian women were raped by Arian colonists (covered in treaties, also commercial issues, etc). Prices and equivalences were arranged between European and Indian. The “fair exchange” regime. Main trouble was land, and the right to use and occupy land. Discussed publicly and privately economic and social situation, etc. Attitudes: everyone knew about the Spanish debate. English were not successful – 17th and 18th century further for debating the subject had died out. Some tried to defend Indians, other imperial, Catholics, etc. The Pope said they could because Catholic Church had given Spain and Portugal the right to occupy and colonize. The aim was of natives into Catholic Church, and “spainizing” the Indian population. English government did not really care. Self-attribution of property “we don’t need the authorization of the pope, we authorize ourselves”. This was a not very well expressed attitude. Basically, the British self-attributed. Indians were there, increasingly hostile as the British colonies became stronger. It was a practical and pragmatic decision. Tribes like nations equal valid political entities. No sense of tribal ownership of the land: sense of ancestral hunting grounds. Acceptance of the treaty can negotiate rights. Was not a fully accepted and didn’t form part of the English culture. Both parts did not share the same language. Treaties allowed Indians to fight back especially when USA became an independent sovereignty. Translators used to be of mixed blood. Tribal chiefs. Ability to understand the white man and defend the Indians better. But they didn’t. Mc Gillivray, half creek half French. Educated men. Undisputed chief until he died. Lived by trapping and trading the trapped animals, skins etc. we know nothing about them because they come and go. Lived as Indians. Nomads? Land was for hunting purposes. Indians realized what the English people understood was in the treaties. Any kind of negotiation. Over time, English colonies become stronger. Indian demographic cohesion was failing. Intertribal affair. Often hostile between tribes. Very difficult for Indian leaders to keep authority from tribes. Great advantage for Europeans that were prone to conquer. Concept of just war (guerra justa). The concept could be thought. Motifs could be fabricated – it could be a pretext. Extreme punitive features were legally justified. Another element – power between power and local authorities and local elites. Not very strong at the beginning. Wealthy inhabitants of the colonies. Many instances of disputes. Local interests were to push Indians from these lands. Extermination, either by epidemies, forced deportation. The ways in which the Indians lost their lives is interesting. Bribing Indian chiefs – not all Indian chiefs were so responsible in representing their tribes. Alcohol etc. could be used to buy an Indian chief. They gave away tribal lands. Then it was difficult to convince the tribe “that man is not authorized to speak for our tribe”. Sometimes the Indians had Indian chiefs that (…). The relations were not homogeneous. They changed opinions. 1720-1725 most of the new townships were sold to new speculators. Bought townships as a whole lot and tried to sell them like farms. Everywhere land expansion onto the west was a matter of speculation. Squatting – American custom. They don’t want to obey government, pay taxes… go to the west, find a valley, hope to find friendly relationships with the Indians and sometimes create a farm/industry. Restless movement. Migrating as individuals. Mobility of Anglo-north American settlers. Three kinds of economy at least. New York, New Jersey, Delaware + Pennsylvania. Farmous dream country. They could produce anything that was imported from Europe. European livestock produced meat, etc. produces a lot for local subsistence and also a surplus (excedente) for export. If you can produce surpluses you have enough to trade with your neighbors or export. 1664. Two revolutions that lasted most of the 17th century. Many of the colonies carried seeds of discourse. Puritan colonies of New England founded by different groups of puritans, rejection of absolutists theories. John Locke synthesized the result of the revolution. Power corrupts always, first idea, therefore society as a whole was always in right tendency to the power. Resist tyranny. Impose of moral obligation. The solution was the system of checks and balances. Executive power, king, legislative power belongs to the parliament and the congress and finally judicial power represented by diverse numbers of groups or levels. The power is always controlled by another. King would be controlled essentially by parliament through money. The king, in order to carry on his policies needs money. Executive power has a lot of expenses, private or public. Money comes through parliament. Taxes are the source of renewed executive income. People with properties pay taxes. Taxes are what parliament self imposes in order to gain money. King war against France, trip to Scotland… money from parliament. Most property was in the form of land. What gave you income. Social prestige comes from owning land. No taxes until people are represented. From there to the other idea, property gives individual rights. Very difficult to stress the importance of this idea. If your private property is protected by the law. Practical aspects of government. Internal conflicts which mirrored the internal conflicts in England. This struggle of power between the colonies and the crown. Caused by an intensification. Situation of the English colonies: 13 colonies? Wrong to say, had more than 20 colonies. 13 continental colonies that rebelled against English control. By 1775 of those 13 colonies 8 had become royal colonies. None of them was originally a royal colony. There was no crown money invested in creation of colonies, what they did was giving the promoters a royal charter – capitulaciones. In the charter there was the royal concession. Each colony was different. In the struggle of power 8 colonies had lost a little of its autonomy. The government of that colony was generally appointed by the king. Three propietal colonies. Maryland, Pennsylvania, Delaware. Proprietor colony = belongs to a person. By 17th c Maryland belongs to a family. There were two very small self-governing colonies: Rhode Island and Connecticut. Supreme authority: crown. All 13 colonies had all established very well legislative assemblies, representative legislative assemblies. The assemblies represented people who voted and lived in the colonies. Therefore the political organism was very far removed. There’s always a charter. Right to vote in order to have your representative. 17th century. Today we have the system (one adult one vote). Before, restricted by property. Property gave you the right to vote. Giving them more political rights – you have to make access to land easier. Religious tolerance became the practical worm. Sometimes it was built into legislation but most colonies didn’t legislate about it. In Pennsylvania you could vote if you were the owner of 50 acres of land. Well seated 50 acres: roads cleared, house on it, trees had to be cleared, visibly occupied. “Including 12 acres of cleared space” (Pennsylvania). Cleared of trees, bushes, etc. you could also vote if you were worth 50 pounds (properties, merchandise, slave). Virginia you could vote if you had 50 acres without a house or 25 acres with a house which was a minimum of 12 square feet. Access to private landownership was easy. Most of the land was in permanent ownership. Much more easy than in Europe. This system meant that 50% of the population were not in the position to vote. 34º north to 41º N to the London Company. 1606: 38º north – 45ºN to the Plymouth Company. They had territories in common, lead to dispute from very beginning. Colonies got 50 miles north, 50 miles south and 100 miles into the interior. Topographical incidents. Vague idea of the coast – not properly mapped. Point comfort – 200 miles north + to the south. DIAGRAMA TERRITORIAL. Virginia patent. Very vague notions of geography. Serious conflicts between colonies in the future. Private property owners often found themselves in the middle of the conflicts. Land initially divided into investors. After a period of 7 years the profits and the improved land would be divided into shares; also gave a share of 100 acres of improved land to those who had 12 pounds 10 shillings (minimum share). No monetary profits at the beginning. At the end of the seven years they distributed the money and the amount of land given to the investors was 100 acres as private property. Many people who wanted to go to America, to Virginia to make a new life and didn’t had the time – every person who came in the colony and was self-financer would also receive the 100 acres. The plan did not work at the full satisfaction of everybody. After 7 years there were no profits to share. Discontent between the colonies. Headright system 1618. Earlier system had failed, so this was introduced. A right to own land per head. 50 acres of land given to anyone emigrating under their own expenses, bringing people with him 50 extra acres: wife, child, servant. Land was to be private property and no limitations except one: feudal origin – quit rent. Fixed amount of money paid as a kind of remembrance that there were no personal services to give to the original owner. No arrendamiento. Quick rents extremely unpopular – reminded people of the feudal age. Though it was a small amount of money, in total it meant a lot of money. Virginia – 1 shilling per year per 50 acres. 1 shilling for every headright. Maryland – founded in 1630’s – price was fixed in species: 10 pounds of wheat per 50 acres. Very little money circulating on the colonies. 400 pounds per year in quitrents. Laws permitted to establish primogeniture on their lands. Common in Europe. Try to protect family patrimony. Feudal system quickly spread. Indentured servant. If a person came to the colonies as one, at the end of their contract they received land or bought it. Tobacco, rice. Indentured servants voluntarily or involuntarily were doing a contract to work. 2, 5, 7, 10 year indentured. Conditions on contract varied. Farm – longer and harsher conditions. Carpenter or corker – terms of contract more encouraging and less severe. Offered not to go to prison and become indentured servants. Everything copied by hand, so they indented the papers: one for servant and one for owners. People who wanted to go to America but were too poor to pay. Some people offered people to go on ships to America: I will get you to Virginia at my expense but when we get there I will sell you, your contract, to someone who needs you. Key thing: no social stigma attached. As an inducement they were offered free land. Mobility is one of the quintessential of the American life. In other place, maybe, my fortune will be better. I failed here but I can start my life again in another place. Explains very well why American society has always been mobile. The government in England was not very involved. 1619 – the year after introducing the headright system. 1619 House of Burgeses. First representative legislative body. Considered and established that all free landowners could vote. Peoples participation in politics depended on landownership. PLYMOUTH. Colony founded by pilgrim fathers. Squatter colony. They did not land where they thought they were going to land. Able to negotiate a posteriori in order to consolidate the territorial limits of its own colony. Many other squatter colonies after in USA, particularly in new England. Initially in new England there were repeated protests on the attempt (…). Long struggle on Massachusetts – religious restriction of the vote. You had to be an active member of the puritan church. Rhode Island – self-governing colony. Its founder, Roger Island, was in disagreement with the regime and his ideology at the time was most progressive. Also welcomed Jews because he thought there should be religious freedom. Indian landrights. English colonies could only validate. There is a basic knowledge of exclusion and there were some attempts in New England for Indians to learn about Christianity. Middle of the 17th century in New England there was a missionary movement to puritanize the Indians – induced to settle in Indian towns (which had to be created for the Indians to settle). Land donated/given by English colonies. Praying Indians colonies. Good number of praying Indians towns. 1650’s Virginias inaugurating the reservation system. Indians are recognized territory with certain limits. They are promised that white men will not interfere with them in that territory. The idea is to separate them. Hybrid – Anglo-Indian society with a hybrid culture? Not in the mind of colonizers. Middle of the 18th century. By this time, the English, French and Spanish colonies had consolidated to such an extent that they were becoming conflictive on almost a daily basis. The area where most of the They found it relatively easy to talk to the British. Not to make the break so deep, so oppressive. There wouldn’t be a lasting resentment. Only a little bit in the north, where Great Britain continued to hold. The American negotiators of Paris had been forbidden to negotiate secretly and without France. Spain was colonial power in America. It did help the USA in many ways from the beginning, secretly. Spain entered the war as an enemy of great Britain. Desire to reconquer the Floridas. Conquered west Florida. Diverted British attention. Spanish war aim: reconquer east and west Florida. Both of them began against Spanish. During the war many people living in Anglo North America were not active rebels, most of them expectant to see who would win. Active and very determined royalists. Considered themselves Englishmen. Thousands emigrated to the Floridas – perfect for loyalists who fled from other colonies. When Spain reconquered east Florida, created a new situation of multiculturality. Times of sailing ships: maritime currents. Best, quickest, surest root is along the coast of Florida. This is why Spanish wanted to protect Florida so much. Corriente del golfo, which takes sailing ships directly to Britain. If Spain managed to recuperate two Floridas – Spanish control over the coasts. Protect homecoming ships who are navigating. Ships that carried American gold and silver. 13 separate colonies. Today they have constitution which created a federal republic. Much weaker constitution – the USA in the first few years did not form strong federal government. Executive committee with representatives of the 13 independent states. Although this treaty was negotiated by Britain, everybody in Europe expected and hoped that the USA would collapse in a very short time. No one wanted to annoy them publicly. They did it secretly. Navigation in the pacific. When the river Mississippi was in front of Spain and British frontier, both colonies could navigate the river to the Mexican gulf. Part of the river from its delta up to (…) was controlled by Spain on both sides. Power to prohibit any foreign to navigate on the river. Strangling any hopes of western speculators of being able to export their products. Big bulky products – no exportable: tobacco etc. only natural, easy, cheap root to export was down the rivers to its mouth. Fundamental to American expansion. For the next 20 years there is a constant danger of western succession. Separating legally from the union was always a possibility other examples were refusal to evacuate certain coasts. Niagara, Detroit, Michimacinac. The problem of the northern frontier of west Florida – when the British obtained Florida was to divide it into 2 provinces. Also altered the administrative boundary. 32º 28 minutes latitude north. British changed that boundaries and made it south: 31º. Most fertile tobacco land was. Clearly an area that would be disputed. Deliberately left by British. Permanent conflict. Land policy. Most important thing that happened in the USA. Social political structure of the American society. During the war the USA was under a revolutionary government. League of friendship, to defend common interests. Not a nation, not an union, but a confederation of sovern states. Anarchy, total chaos. Executive committee of representatives. Not paid with national money because there is no national money. No public money they could depend on. It also solved the main problem the USA had. Old northwest land ordinance. Ley de tierras. 1785. Had extended from sea to sea. They expect to have the advantages. Desperate war for independence. Internal problem – if we try to impose our rights there will be internal conflict. Inevitable. Personal enrichment on the feverish – western land. Profits for speculators who were adventurous enough. Western land is a dream for personal/social enrichment. Inevitable conflict. Solution – all states agree to accept their territorial limits. Public domain – belonging to the union. Not all the states had in fact formerly renounced. This law, land act, establishes the model by which western territories will be occupied, mapped. 1787 law. Confederation as new states. Independent, equal states. Ferocious political argument. All politicians that knew this was going to happen started to speculate. Established towns, all the land was mapped and divided into squares called townships and all had the same size. 6x6 miles. DIAGRAMA MILES AND ACRES 36 squared miles total. The land was to be sold at public auction. Very common. The minimal acquisition was 1 section. The price was one dollar per acre. This was the main source of income for the government. It did not had the power to tax the people directly. Did not have any civil servants – not enough administrative personnel. The price was very low per acre, but you had to buy 640 acres. A lot of money. That was the problem – it was thought that this could increase expansion. Economic problem. Of the 36 sections, 4 of them would be reserved for a central government use. All of these lines belong to the public domain. 4 would be reserved for the use in a future of the central government. Land available in every township. Fewer expropriations of land. In every township one section was reserved for education, schooling. Education was a national priority, importance of education to them, schooling was very high in their list of priorities because every individual must have access to the bible without intermediaries. They believed the main preoccupation of citizens should be the eternal salvation of their soul. Social custom or value, very high in the list of priorities. Towards the 17th and the 18th centuries it was a matter of literacy – if you could read you could be concerned of literary affairs. And public affairs. Read, discuss and spread information. Participate in public affairs. Utility of knowing to read. Agriculture, the value of literacy was much more developed in the 18th century and became a priority. 67% of the population were illiterate at the beginning of the 20th century. Propaganda. Feature of modern warfare. The role that propaganda could have, especially in American Revolution was amazing. Most people could actually read it and therefore participate in a public debate. No power of taxation (government). Source of income, to pay off the international debt. Land was at a very low price, one dollar per acre, but the minimum that could be sold was one section, so 640$. They could not afford to buy one whole section. Private land Speculation Company – bought a big amount of land. 1.500.000 acres, purchased it at a lower price 0.9$ per acre. There were public auctions and families bought sections. One of the two laws. The other law is the northwest audience. Political organization of the whole territory. 1787 – same year as the federal constitution being written. The whole territory would have a governor pointed by congress. The procedure was: when a territory had 5000 inhabitants who were male and had a minimum of 50 acres of property each they were enabled to elect a legislative assembly. Territorial legislative assembly. Transition. They had their own territory, their own laws (as long as they don’t contradict superior national laws). They could also send a delegate to congress, but without a vote. This is the situation today of Washington DC. It has three delegates today, but unable to vote. This is the situation until the territory reaches 60.000 inhabitants. Then it may request integration in the union as a state. It is foreseen that they will become states with equal rights. In this territory it was established that they could establish a minimum of three states and a maximum of 5. States should have a territorial entity. The reason is that they are also writing the US federal constitution. Every state has two senators in the senate. Higher assembly of the two: senate and house of representatives. Fundamental issue from this period up to the civil war. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin. This five states were created under this law. Slavery was forbidden in this territory. At the time for anti-slavery – vision of the future (all citizens are born equal). Declaration of independence. Has two parts. One visionary, moves emotions, still valid today. Geographical limits of slavery, geographical limits of tobacco. Political battle that wasn’t worth fighting. Why would they want slaves if they were not going to be economically profitable? That part of the law was not constitutional. Not giving slaves the option if they wanted or not to be slaves. Land. Land act, more or less recognized that it wasn’t easy for farmers. 1796 law made possible to purchase an eight of a section in public auction. People who had $ could buy it directly from the government. This time it was 2$ per acre, but more accessible. 1804 law where congress seriously modifies purchasing lands in the west. Minimum unit 160 acres – quarter of a section. Standard size of farms and land of public domain – smallest unit that could be sold. 1.64$ new price. The reason for this change is 1803. Louisiana purchased the territory from France. Too much land. No point in trying to make the land expensive when there was so much land available. People who had lands in Louisiana F 0 E 0 united states tried to legalize their situation. Penalties for squatters (illegal settlers). 1841 – Big chronological jump. Andrew Jackson. Democrats hated banks. He considered the bank was not democratic. Patent of bank was going to expire when he was president. They voted against renewing the banks patent. Common citizens of the United States. Banks were not democratic because they controlled money too severely. Anybody with big mortgages like inflection. Vote against the bank. Left without a strong banking system. Creation of many small private banks. They had nothing to support their financially undertaken and often disappeared with people’s savings. Money in the west was mostly paper money with no support behind it. It was useful as long as people accepted it. It became highly depreciated in the 1830’s. as a result of this – all purchases concerns was to combat alcoholism. 1799 began having visions – passing this instructions. Accept and follow if they wanted to behave like a tribe. Gaiwiio. Instructions given to Hanson Lake. Some of their basic ideas – pacific messialism. There will come a day, the day of judgement. Save/ condemn individuals eternally. Not a racist aggressive teaching. Adapting European/Christian elements into it. Traditional thoughts add on to what they already had. Apocalyptic. Rejection of abortion, alcoholism and hard playing. Recognized by European governments. Family patrimony. Equipment, repeatedly gamble their equipment which were essential for their military functions. Male member of the family couldn’t function – very ill, alcoholic. Abortion. Infanticide as a mean of dealing with shortages of food. Cannot deal with newborn babies. Opposition to abortion was much more. Severe rules sustained. Demographic viability was not determined by plagues, etc. the main factor which will prevent people from recuperating their (…) will be those who affect reproductive capacity of people. Mean of guaranteeing reproductive capacity. They thought on angels and recognized the existence of Jesus Christ. Took on board the Christian ideas of confession. Stressing temperance – rejection of alcohol. 1790’s early 1800. Number of movements in Anglo North America. Alcoholism considered a big problem. General mix – religion of the long house. Traditional ceremonies. Preached peace, preservation of Iroquois land, adoption of civilized arts – including the learning of the English language. In the selective acceptance of white technology. Cultivation of one’s own land. Influence of very strongly held Anglo-American ideas. Family farm with landowner cultivating the land. Epicenter of Anglo North American thought. It is clear that the family should have their own land and cultivate it. Sense that Iroquois males frequently died. Cultivating it. Place of refuge for family. Survival of Iroquois family. Circumstances have changed. No need to adapt the way you live to actual circumstances. Tribes seeking to accommodate to European lifestyles. Culturally accepted for Iroquois men. Passively acceptation? No. they themselves seek ways of accommodation. 1815 died Hanson, but his teaching remained. Teachings of Gaiwiio up until today. Example is in the south – selective assimilation. Hierarchy one of the five assimilated nations. Cultivated the lands. Accepted the technology instead of using sticks. Also read. Their construction activity. Weaving loom. Mills, still had very big and useful forest resources. Aserraderos (sawmill). When they negotiated treaties they felt the pressure to admit missionaries. There was not much volunteer interested, but used the arguments that it will help them. First building will not be commissioned in school. Could learn to read and write. Eventually between 1800-1825 were built in tribal territory. Very interesting – Cherokee was a matriarchy. Inheritance laws were matrilineal. Mixed school system. Very advanced because the teaching was bilingual (English + Cherokee). Cherokee already understood public opinion. Very important newspapers. One of their leaders, sequoia (George gist) 1809 invented a pictographic system of Cherokee writing. Mini pictures. Translating thoughts and discourse into images. 1820’s invented a syllabic system of writing. 85 signs/syllabus. Used to write. Eventually the newspaper was bilingual. The whole tribe knew how to read and write. Also created the government system. Anglo North American republican model. National committee. Second legislative body. Separating legislative and judicial. Leading by example and persuasion. Idea of pejorative rule. 1808 the Cherokee themselves formulated a written code of laws. Very heroic and tragic confrontation. Shawnee. Located in Northwest Territory. Five states of the union. In the mid 90’s became official. Twin brothers called Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa (also known as the prophet). Thought to have visions where the truth was revealed. Became to emerge as important Shawnee leaders. More revolutionary because they were concerned only with (…). Future – palindianism as a real movement. Embrionary thought. Was partly on the existence of this Spanish officials. All though the 90’s actively negotiating with the different English tribes. Negotiated confederation. Very important treaties between Indian tribes and Spanish. Knew perfectly well the contents of their agreements. As a prophet began to share his visions with the rest of the tribe. All the other tribes were descended from the Shawnee. Actually had a responsibility towards the other tribes and this creates a responsibility. Later creation and inferior. Attempts to create hierarchies of racism in the world. Inferior and created later, whites? Language of separation, discrimination. Reason white men now have control over us is because we’re being punished. White supremacy is a manifestation of the Shawnee. This is why white men have power over us. Incipient pan Indian conscience. Much more aggressive than the Iroquois. Sense that there is an unfairness. Even if this resistance became aggressive. Regenerated spiritually. Reevaluation of courage, resistance, temperance. Protection of Indian lands. Indians should renounce everything connected with white man, even small things of apparent little importance. Total rejection of white man. Physical, racial separation from the white man. No tribe may give away any part of tribal territories. Important generally to all the Indians. All Indians are affected if one tribe gives away, sells etc. any part of its land. They have not the right to give away land. 1795-1821 US federal government built 25 trading coasts. Trying to control Indian trade. As a manifestation of that power they built those coasts. Build places Indians would recognize. Furs, skins, taken there to exchange and sell. Not only center of commercial activity, also mini cultural center. Interaction, know each other’s ways. Vanguard of expansion. Before the way settlers arrived. In closer and permanent contact. In the commercial transactions. Tried to negotiate advantageously to them. In the long term it was very possible that Indians gradually become indebted. Were often credited. Bond created – used for the advantage of getting information, military uses… indebtedness was chronic. If the debt became enormous – peaceful way of telling Indians to give away land to cancel debt. Long-term way of getting land without entering a war. Competing with private traders. Another interpretation: by 1820’s a great deal of impatience. Too slow. Pressure was too great. 1803 USA bought great territory in Louisiana from napoleon. Very uncertain limits. Changed the vision of their country. Economic resources semt. Insistently verbalized – why don’t we move all the Indians from east to west? They could learn about the white men’s culture. Definitive conflict between white and Indian. Very strong idea in the 1820’s. Shawnee brothers began emerging the leaders. In year 1809 gradually managed to expand their ideas. Confederation of east. Western tribes. Ojibwas, Delawares, Wyanclots, Ottawas. Iroquois decided to go alone and defend themselves as a group: the US government was informed that Tecumseh was absent. Consolidate this confederation. Receive help by British Canadians. Harrison managed a session of land with other minor chiefs, or even invented chiefs. When Tecumseh went back, a war in the northwest leading to two battles which later became a political slogan: Tippecanoe. When Harrison went to the USA: Tippecanoe and Tyler too. Considered to be the decisive action. 1811. USA declared war on Great Britain – 1812 (second war of independence). Very varied reasons. Context. Trying to take advantage of that circumstance. Weak, stressed to make a big effort on North America. Perfect opportunity to break battle of river Thames. Confederation disintegrated. Land was taken over by USA. Blackhawk belong to the sank tribe. Resisted for a long time. More than 20 years. Blackhawk was retreating against American advances in Illinois. Three seminal wars in Florida. Not an original tribe. Documentary. Until the mid-18th century. Formed by grouping together Florida tribes, slaves, as long as they would become defenders. Second war of independence. War on great Britain. Disaster for American Indians: north western tribes, western confederation. South east tribes tried to maintain the neutrality. History of negotiation, trade… conviction that the only viable policy – try to maintain the coloniality in wars. Impact in south eastern tribes – creeks influence by Tecumseh. Also declared war in the USA. Upper + lower creeks. Very difficult to determine which words to use for describing the political units. Baton rouge F 0 E 0 Louisiana. Red stick – reference for this particular state. Battle of horseshoe band. Important victory. Both gain national political credit and become presidents of USA. Jackson had military alliance. Choctaw Indians history of intertribal hostility. Already requested permission to Spain to move westwards. Also interesting are the reasons – representative of many other battles. Factions of Choctaw and creeks – allies of Americans were led by a mestizo chief called mackintosh. Cherokee creek Choctaw women and Scottish fathers. Childs wearing Scottish surnames. Shows important word of mix bloods as agents – translators, interpreters, etc. as a result of that treaty one of the harshest treaties made – treaty of the creeks. Creeks lost about half of creekal lands in Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi. Excerpts from federal institution – text. Beginning of an important legislation in the USA. Confusion/omission regarding any definition of citizenship. Does not clearly estipulate what the rights of non-Indian were. Although federal government supporters wanted to make sure their authority was understood – this was not accepted by everybody. Individual rights of sovereignty of each state. One of the battles revolved around the issue of Indian comers within the USA. Social community. LOOK AT TEXT. Política Indígena en los Estados Unidos, s. XIX. Prof. Sylvia L. Hilton USA. Federal government did not control it. Practicalities considered jurisdiction of each individual state. Free Negroes were more than them. Contingent upon state legislation in general terms. Cherokees tried to stop Georgia from taking their lands. National news. Cherokees wanted public opinion to know legal processes. Supreme Court F 0 E 0 this case will reach it. In the meantime, vast change in America political life is occurring. At the end of 18th century no political parties as we understand them today. During the war F 0 E 0 loyalists vs. rebels/patriots. Starting positions before the war. Then, loyalists emigrated. Rejected the idea of living in a republic so emigrated. Many didn’t. First positioning came during the 2 year debate over federal constitution. Positioning themselves politically. Two groups: federalists vs. antifederalists. Federalists were led by Washington, Hamilton, Adams vs. Jefferson. That situation went on for a while. Progressive wind of American politics. Antifederalists form a new party – democratic Republican Party – jeffersonians. Victory of jeffersonians in 1800 – dominated by Republican Party. After Jefferson – madison etc. no effective opposition F 0 E 0 eventually it takes in by itself. In the western part of the USA a new political persuasion formed into the Democratic Party: Andrew Jackson, first president/leader. Ancestor of today’s Democratic Party. During the long period of democrats new parties appeared representing liberals. Negroes/women/Indians not included. We can’t equate democratic parties of now and then. Filed legal suit to protect its lands – political revolution happening in western frontiers. Small indebted western farmer F 0 E 0 supporter of democratic party. Has to represent the interest of his electors. VAN BUREN. Already had their ideas of what they were going to do with Indians F 0 E 0 deport them. 1830 removal act (Indians). Indians were settled from east to west of Mississippi river. Culmination of that idea – after the purchase of Louisiana. Vast amount of Mississippi territory unexplored and unhabited by white men. Long time in front of them before whites occupied west of Mississippi river. They would be given desecrated/new territories for each tribes F 0 E 0 in practical terms/no preparation made/no vantgarde sent/no refuges/deported without preparation. All of those belongings, theoretically, either had to be sold or left behind. Impossible to take with them in the journey. Trail of tears. Untold hardships and suffering most tribes underwent in this deportation. At least 100.000 Indians were deported. Many tribes lost one third of their people. Resistance – not all Indians accepted particularly in the north west. Blackhawk – seminal resistance 1870, 1880-90. Florida up until civil war. Facilitated by Florida (peninsular). Place where refugees, fugitives, criminal of all sorts could find a refuge. Watery fair land. Infested with hostile conditions to live in. not surprising to see the developments today of drug contraband, etc. ironic/paradoxical conclusions of this law – extremely hard for Indians. Hadn’t been previously negotiated. Intertribal hostilities – added pressure by natural resources. Eastern tribes that settled on the western tribes remained peaceful, without serious disturbances or activities until 20th century. Did not participate normally in intense or repeated activities. End of civil war and 1890 – period of Indian wars and successive waves and frontiers in the south west followed by farmers. Eastern tribes did not participate in Indian wars. End of the 40’s. deportation law went out throughout the 30’s. as a result of the Mexican war USA negotiated treaty with great Britain 1846 to divide the OREGON TERRITORY. 49º north (latitude). Arriving at the pacific coast F 0 E 0 affect Indian policy and territories in the west. Immediately after signing the treaty with Mexico gold was discovered in California. Massive international news. Hoarding to California attracted by the great riches found. 50’s – 90’s succession of discoveries of gold/silver/both in mountain west. Most of it was in territory of Indians. Fevers of migrants creating permanent migration to western territory. Railway finished in 1869. United Atlantic and pacific coasts. No permission asked to enter Indian lands and extract gold. GOLD FOUNDINGS BY DATES (…to the 90’s). Big discoveries. When tribes where dispossessed of their lands because of gold there was no compensation. Fast diminishing in absolute terms of population. 1850 – Estimated censes – only about 300.000 Indians left. Fast disappearing, physically. 1.000.000 – 6.000.000 (1492) max, before. Indian demography – historical maximum in the whole of the Americas (because Spanish colonization). Catastrophic decline. At the verge of disappearing. Many people thought Indian was a disappearing race – because they were inferior or because being incompatible as Calhoun explained. Long history of corruption around it, mafious business. The congress had agreed in many treaties on giving supplies, livestock, in exchange for acceptance of limits of reservation. The money, supplies that the government was in charge of administrating. Federal funds for Indians – they continued to have this inferior social status. WAID. A person who is considered legally a minor. Still not considered citizen of the USA and not considered until further on. Washington mafia. Well known for inflating a number of jobs – giving them to certain people, giving high salaries. Accusations of racism and racist policies. Racist institution gilded age – shines like gold but it’s not: dorado. Dominated by the desire of wealth. Individuals also were ruthlessly making big fortunes. Euros policies were corrupt: we don’t know if racist. Immediately the euro was passed to the department of the interior. Creation of new tribal territories – after the 18th century the euro decides to take the horse creek stream that in very arid weather dries up. 10.000 representatives of many far western tribes and between them they signed the treaty of Laramie. Many different tribes: Cheyenne, Arapaho, Sioux, Crow, Gros-Ventres, Assiniboine, Mandan, Arikara, Blackfoot. Signed the treaty. Keep on this policy of designated reservation and promises. Jealousies between tribes. Very difficult for tribes to have a sense of unity and cultural belonging. Very little of this in this time – even when many tribal representatives signed this treaties the rebels would simply not accept their authority. Refused to live in their designated areas. This kind of activity. Particularly difficult in this time. The treaty was signed – agreement to pay the subsidies. Two generations for the tribes to settle. The idea that two generations reduced 15 years to 10. The policy failed. The attempt to turn all Indians in farmers failed. Cultivated in extensive agriculture. Supposed to sustain themselves. Dignified occupation for men – very difficult for many reasons. Progressive sense of Indian dependency. In relation to connections between Indo-European and USA – in Latin America (with its huge farm debts) reality was very present. Sense of dependency. Many social ills. Lack of future prospects – passive attitude. Late 18th century image of Spanish missionaries in California. Treating people like infants makes them eventually become infantile. 1859 – Charles Darwin publishes the origin of species. Widely misunderstood – immediately got by racist to express social Darwinism F 0 E 0 inferior people, natural law that many people will disappear because of their incapability to adapt. Social Darwinism entered in contact with people that introduced teachings that it was a moral obligation to protect the weak. Conflict of ideas. Natural laws were highly applicable and much appreciated. Natural law – not anybody’s fault. Being superior and stronger. Anglosaxonism – mentality shared of their intrinsecal racial superiority. Also some other people – political minorities – considered themselves as in the most progressive wind. Opposition of minorities. Exulted the USA etc. with many articles. Institution system in Spain 1898 F 0 E 0 war with Cuba. Pi y Maragall wrote articles in the same way that he had been doing for 30 years. 1862 homestead act. USA and ? were held as examples. Throughout the Atlantic world. Civil war. 1861 – 1865. Wars were always opportunities which many saw as an opportunity to gain a sense of identity, worth, etc. mostly in the eastern parts of America – uprising of many different groups and tribes of Indian with the usual problem of lack of coordination. Go on more or less continuously until 1890, nearly the end of the 19th century. Tribes which were immediately hostile (Nez Perce). Native American literature – very moving speeches enduring hard conditions for 17 years. Little crow – santé. Leader – big eagle. Pacifist, tried to negotiate truce in this war imposed all acceptable conditions. Offered money for the scalps of him and his 17 year old son. Apache – experience of frontier warfare against Spaniards and Mexicans. Very fats tactics – never engage their own. Between 1860 – 1890 great apache leaders who were very active at this time. Half the tribe – all surrended and murdered. Geronimo lead the other half of the tribe to Arizona and then to Mexico. Began the war because of their discovery of gold. Indians then displaced to a much smaller territory. Most horrific thing told is the treatment, behavior of commanding officer. Murdered 450 people who had already surrended. “kill all, kill and scalp all. Las liendres se convierten en piojos”. Film: Soldado Azul. After the civil war ended came succession of frontiers. Railways in railway crews – it also meant that people could kill amazing numbers of buffalo to provide meat to feed the gangs. Also divided the buffalo herds – massacre. Set very incompetently – built in a race. Railways very invasive. Also 1870’s – 1880’s scene of a new sport for European aristocrats. Shooting buffalo from the railway. Reduced from 13 million head to a few hundred by the 1800. Yellowstone national park. Railways facilitated cattle frontier when they discovered they could survive the winters by eating pastos locales. Specialized in slaughterhouses. Cattle – meat – loaded into the railway. Succession of different economic activities basically. Territorial concerns basically were the motor of the war. Territorial expansion – initial limits, initial frontiers. Eastern and western frontiers were well defined. Problematic because disputed. British Canada continued to distribute over territories. ...This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding. -Esta Constitución, y las Leyes de los Estados Unidos que de ella emanen, y todos los Tratados celebrados o que se celebren bajo la Autoridad de los Estados Unidos, serán la suprema Ley del País y los Jueces de cada Estado estarán obligados a acatarlos, a pesar de cualquier Disposición contraria que se encuentre en la Constitución o las leyes de cualquier Estado. -1868, Amendment XIV - [Citizenship rights.] Ratified 7/9/1868. Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. ... ...2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. - Sección 1. Todas las personas nacidas o naturalizadas en los Estados Unidos y sometidas a su jurisdicción son ciudadanos de los Estados Unidos y de los Estados en que residen. ... ... Sección 2. Los Representantes se distribuirán proporcionalmente entre los diversos Estados de acuerdo con su población respectiva, en la que se tomará en cuenta el número total de personas que haya en cada Estado, con excepción de los Indios que no paguen contribuciones. In san Lorenzo everything was ignored. 1790’s. 1796 – Washington published farewell speech. Said: US very important (they were interested in this speech) not permanent military alliances with power (subject to debate). Message of a peaceful attitude, friendship and justice. Beginning of American holationism. Not linked to any power, much less European. If military alliances were necessary: very carefully worded and closed. Not perpetual, only temporary alliances. Defensive policy. Against pirates. Not real interest in Europe unless for territorial expansion. When Washington farewell – dilemma. What to do next? Federalist Party generally speaking was getting more and more pro-British. Not getting in Britain’s way in its war against France. People liked Jefferson, madison… pro French. But weren’t as pro French as to be supported by France. Reflects internal politics. Avoided a war against France, although others in his party were pushing him to maintain war with France. After 1800 no perpetual alliance between France and US. Napoleon negotiated the dissolving of 1778 treaty. Napoleon thinking on possible occupation of Louisiana. He can’t afford having conflict with US. France and Spain: repossession of Louisiana. Late 1790’s – rumors, alarms that this was going to happen. French army to saint romaine, were rebelling in favor of black freedom and black participation in public affairs. Black napoleon: Toussaint L’Overture. British didn’t want France to be again a great power in North America. Napoleon’s plan was controlling black rebellion and proceeded to disembark in New Orleans and occupy Mississippi. 40.000 men lost their lives in these two years. Maybe sending another army to occupy Louisiana? Initiative napoleon: no advice, no consultation with advisers... just changed plans and abort new French empire in America. US had an ambassador in Paris. Tried to buy the port of New Orleans and as much territory at the east as possible. New Orleans had always been attached to Louisiana. Jefferson doesn’t really know how much territory France has and Spain has given to France: if he can’t dispose of Florida himself he will (…). Hugely surprised by an offer of Napoleon: sell them New Orleans with the entire territory of Louisiana. Wanted astronomical amount of money. Signed a treaty to buy territories by 10.000.000 dollars. Napoleon doesn’t mention Florida because it isn’t his – but he offered Louisiana, which was Spanish. Spain said: Louisiana a cambio de recognised kingdom of Etruria (Toscana) for our nephew and son in law Luis. This was the deal, but napoleon hadn’t fulfilled the deal… nobody argued but Spain (without diplomatic support) puso el grito en el cielo. THIS IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT EVENTS IN US HISTORY. Federalists opposed to it. More agrarian states full of plantation owners and small farmers? They would vote republically, to the jeffersonians. If a republic extended territory too much, it would lose its republican virtues. It would become an imperialistic state. Opposed on ideological grounds on both sides. Jefferson wrote that he thought it wasn’t constitutional to buy that enormous territory. Wrote in his epitaph his main contributions to the republic and Louisiana wasn’t there… senate approved it, quite enthusiastically. Immense speculation of the Indians, progressing westwards. Events got out of control. Land available for small farms. Lots of territory for them to go to. US see they have all the lands – slavery will expand into the Trans Mississippi west. Therefore it will be considerated as a political/social institution. “Indians will disappear, and blacks, because they’re a minority” no, on the contrary. It will continue to expand. Because of the expansion of agrarian opportunities: it will become tendency of democratizing American political life. Win the elections of 1898. 1810-11-12. By this period a lot of revolutionary figures have died or are very old – new generation of politicians that were elected – they didn’t remember the war and were softer than previous governors. Difficult tensions and conflicts because seizing ships, contraband… etc. trying to stop commerce between USA and any other country. Transatlantic commercial field was a daily battle. Historiography makes too much of that. Risks and prices were high. Huge profit. Great Britain is the old enemy. Mother-son problem. New generation of politicians into congress which are pro war against Britain. They make it, in 1812. End of colonialism between Great Britain and US. Idea to invade Canada with a small army… forces that try to invade Canada are very small. Clear statement of being independent country. War was coming to an end. Resist American invasion in Canada. Canadian nationalism is born there – Canada being different and not wanting to be another state of the union. Federalists were horrified that US tried to attack Great Britain, when great Britain represented a constitutional monarchy. There was a convention in Hartford, Connecticut, where there was a convention of pro-British. They sabotaged the war and discussed secessionism. State and group and states could separate from the union, idea that had power at that time. Union formed voluntarily by sovern states. Harfodites said: war with Great Britain intolerable, secession! Only one: defense of New Orleans by Andrew Jackson. Founder of Democratic Party. Gaining heroic exploits. In the next 2-3 years occupy militarily the west coast of Florida in the United States. Policy of US, territorial expansion. Relations with laboring power, south US. Frontier with Mexico. War 1812 F 0 E 0 second war for independence. Military disaster. Andrew Jackson successfully defended the city from British attack. Definite change in general attitudes towards US itself. At the end of Napoleonic war US was exhausted. Concentrate most of energies in the expansion westwards of the United States. Through those wars and after, British navy continued to take off British deserters. Continued to be a base for hostile Indians which affected frontier settlements. By 1815 British government had slightly modified its attitudes towards (…). Negotiated compromise solutions. 1817: diplomatic agreement between USA. USA would not maintain warships on the great lakes, not Great Britain. Treaty F 0 E 0 reflecting GB reflecting the possibility of building warships on lake. Try to militarize that area. This treaty eliminates that option. Submission of monitory conflict was also considered. Leading to alternative methods of solving international conflicts. Military zone, conflict zone. International warfare zone aborted. Another treaty 1818: begins long process of establishing a frontier between USA and Canada. Louisiana purchase F 0 E 0 consequence of this. USA people had no idea of the limits of Louisiana. In the north – indefinition of frontiers. No serious interest in those territories. Fixes the frontier at 49º latitude north, beginning at the lakes and westwards across the rocky mountains. Interesting treaty: west to that point, that huge territory (Oregon at that time) was unexplored and not seen as giving any commercial resources. No possibility for effective occupation. 10 years – Oregon left over. Open to both territories: settlers, whale hunters, exploiters… after 10 years: renegotiation. In the meantime, south and west Florida had been seized and occupied militarily by the USA. There was a defacto appropriation of west Florida. US settlers in Georgia etc. (and Kentucky) would become annoyed with Spain and settlers in Spanish Floridas F 0 E 0 crossing frontiers and attack settlers. Steal livestock, all sorts of criminal acts against people and possessions. During one of these raids, General A. Jackson took it upon himself to pursue Indians who had been attacking. Crossed the frontier, chasing the Indians. Spaniards offered no resistance. 1818 – Andrew Jackson had come to possession of the Spanish fort and sent his news back to Washington. Spain and Great Britain protested. Great Britain was interested in Spanish ownership of the Floridas. Spanish authorities were not doing enough to control Indians based in Florida. No surrender or capture of the Floridas, inevitable demographic and geographic processes which Spain was not in the mood for changing. Barbarian: contradicted all agreement… laughingstock of all recent boundaries violated. Except one: John Quincy Adams. Next president, most influential. Hillary Clinton’s job today. Very clearly a nationalist and su integridad. Es obvio que para ese acontecimiento no estamos todavía preparados, y que a primera vista se presentan numerosas y formidables objeciones contra la extensión de nuestros dominios más allá del mar [...] Pero hay leyes de gravitación política, como las hay de gravitación física, y así como una fruta madura separada de su árbol por la fuerza del viento no puede, aunque quiera, dejar de caer al suelo, así Cuba, una vez separada de España y rota la conexión artificial que la liga a ella, será incapaz de sostenerse por sí sola, y tendrá que gravitar necesariamente hacia la Unión norteamericana y hacia ella exclusivamente, mientras que a la Unión misma, en virtud de la propia ley, le será imposible dejar de admitirla en su seno." /docsHUS/1823,Monroe La Doctrina Monroe, en el 7^ Mensaje Anual del Presidente James Monroe al Congreso, 2 diciembre 1823. ... A propuesta del Gobierno Imperial Ruso, realizada a través del ministro del Emperador residente aquí, se han remitido al ministro de los Estados Unidos en San Petersburgo plenos poderes e instrucciones para concertar, mediante negociación amistosa, los respectivos derechos e intereses de las dos naciones en la costa noroccidental de este continente. Se ha hecho una propuesta similar por parte de su Majestad Imperial al Gobierno de Gran Bretaña, que ha sido igualmente aceptada. El Gobierno de los Estados Unidos ha querido, mediante este proceder amistoso, manifestar el alto valor que constantemente ha concedido a la amistad del Emperador, y su interés en cultivar el mejor entendimiento con ese Gobierno. En las conversaciones surgidas por este interés, y en los acuerdos a los cuales pueden llevar, se ha considerado que es una ocasión apropiada para declarar, como un principio en el cual están comprometidos los derechos y los intereses de los Estados Unidos, que los continentes Americanos, en virtud de la condición libre e independiente que han asumido y mantienen, en lo sucesivo no deben ser considerados como sujetos a colonización futura por ninguna potencia europea Se afirmó al comienzo de la última sesión que en aquel momento se estaba realizando un gran esfuerzo en España y Portugal para mejorar la condición de los pueblos de aquellos países, y que aparentemente se procedía con una moderación extraordinaria. No hace falta señalar que el resultado, hasta ahora, ha sido muy diferente de lo que entonces se esperaba. De los acontecimientos en aquella parte del globo, con la cual tenemos tantos intercambios, y de la cual derivamos nuestro origen, siempre hemos sido espectadores ansiosos e interesados. Los ciudadanos de los Estados Unidos abrigan sentimientos de la mayor cordialidad en favor de la libertad y felicidad de sus hermanos [fellowmen: semejantes] de aquel lado del Atlántico. En las guerras de las potencias europeas por cuestiones concernientes a ellas nunca hemos intervenido, ni concuerda con nuestra política hacerlo. Es solamente cuando se violan o se amenazan seriamente nuestros derechos, que nos sentimos perjudicados o nos aprestamos a nuestra defensa. Con los acontecimientos de este hemisferio estamos necesariamente conectados de forma más inmediata, por razones que deben resultar obvias a todo observador ilustrado e imparcial. El sistema político de las potencias aliadas es esencialmente diferente en este respecto del de América. Esta diferencia procede de la que existe en sus respectivos gobiernos. Y a la defensa del nuestro propio, que ha sido logrado a costa de tanta sangre y tantos recursos, y madurado por la sabiduría de sus más ilustrados ciudadanos, y bajo el cual hemos disfrutado de una felicidad sin par, está consagrada toda esta nación. La franqueza y las relaciones amistosas que existen entre los Estados Unidos y aquellas potencias nos obligan, por lo tanto, a declarar que consideraríamos cualquier intento suyo de extender su sistema a cualquier parte de este hemisferio, como peligrosa para nuestra paz y seguridad. No hemos interferido ni interferiremos en las actuales colonias o dependencias de ninguna potencia europea. Pero respecto de los Gobiernos que han declarado su independencia, y la han mantenido, y cuya independencia hemos reconocido después de profunda reflexión y basándonos en justos principios, no podríamos entender ninguna injerencia concebida para oprimirlos, o controlar su destino de cualquier otra forma, por parte de cualquier potencia europea, sino como la manifestación de una disposición hostil hacia los Estados Unidos. En la guerra entre estos nuevos Gobiernos y España, declaramos nuestra neutralidad cuando se planteó su reconocimiento, y a esto nos hemos adherido, y continuaremos adhiriéndonos, bajo la condición de que no se produzca ningún cambio que, a juicio de las autoridades competentes de este Gobierno, haga que sea indispensable para la seguridad de los Estados Unidos adoptar por su parte un cambio correspondiente. Los recientes acontecimientos ocurridos en España y Portugal demuestran que Europa sigue estando inestable. De esta importante verdad no se puede aducir mayor evidencia que el hecho de que las potencias aliadas hayan considerado, en virtud de cualquier principio satisfactorio para ellos mismos, que sea lícito intervenir por la fuerza en los asuntos internos de España. A qué extremos pueda llegar tal injerencia, basándose en el mismo principio, es una cuestión en la cual están interesadas todas las potencias independientes cuyos Gobiernos difieren de los gobiernos europeos, incluso las más remotas, y ciertamente ninguna más que los Estados Unidos. Nuestra política respecto de Europa, aunque fue adoptada durante una fase temprana de las guerras que durante tanto tiempo han agitado aquella parte del globo, no obstante sigue siendo la misma; y es, no interferir en los asuntos internos de ninguna de sus potencias; considerar al Gobierno de facto como el gobierno legítimo, en lo que a nosotros nos atañe; cultivar relaciones amistosas con él, y conservar esas relaciones mediante una política franca, firme y varonil, que satisfaga, en todos los casos, las justas demandas de cada potencia, sin admitir perjuicios de ninguna. Pero respecto de estos continentes, las circunstancias son eminente y claramente diferentes. Es imposible que las potencias aliadas extiendan su sistema político a parte alguna de cualquiera de los dos continentes sin hacer peligrar nuestra paz y nuestra felicidad; tampoco puede nadie creer que nuestros hermanos [brethren] meridionales, si se les deja actuar solos, adoptarían tal cosa de su propia voluntad. Es igualmente imposible, por consiguiente, que nosotros contemplásemos tal intromisión, bajo cualquier forma, con indiferencia. Si comparamos las fuerzas y los recursos de España con los de esos nuevos Gobiernos, y la distancia que los separa, ha de resultar obvio que ella no podrá jamás subyugarlos. Sigue siendo la verdadera política de los Estados Unidos dejar que las dos partes resuelvan sus propios asuntos, en la esperanza de que las demás potencias seguirán la misma política. * * * Trad. al español por Sylvia L. Hilton. Handout. Laws of political gravitation/physical gravitation. Commercial interests of our union. Annexation of Cuba would be indispensable. PARAPHRASIS OF HANDOUT. First paragraph: Monroe doctrine, Russians wanted to colonize North America. Ideal or appropriate occasion – to make declaration. Areas won’t be considered as future land for colonizations. No disputing the (…) of colonial powers. You often see a tendency to interpret everything that was done after the Cuban war. Respected Spanish militaricy with Cuba, Puerto Rico… respect on. Almost started to feel like a guarantee of Spanish possession. Principle not written in the Monroe doctrine. France might come and reoccupy Louisiana. Not permit future new colonization or transfer from one colonial power to other colonial power. Cuba is Spanish as long as Spain can hold it. Difficulties of Spain and Portugal. Anxious and worried. Clear keywords: liberty and happiness. Este hemisferio: very interesting word. A sense of oneness, unity of America. Different thing, we go by different rules. Idea of the western hemisphere. They leave a door open in case there is need to intervene. The door is not the Texas offer said he couldn’t afford it –losing votes etc.- so he recognized Texan independence. MONROE DOCTRINE PERFECTLY COMBINABLE. Very convenient attitude for the United States. James pope campaign – campaigned for the reoccupation of Oregon and reanexation of Texas. Re- linguistic treat: “this is not an imperialistic war/attitude, it’s just claiming what belonged to us”. Texas belonged to Louisiana, and Oregon. Thinking in terms of disputing the treaty with Great Britain. Very famous phrase was coined: MANIFEST DESTINY. John O’Sullivan, journalist, diplomat, active member of democratic party. Nationalistic ideology. Much older colonial instincts. Puritans in 17th century were said to be on a divine mission – found and consolidate a pure, puritan Christian community who would be an example for the rest to follow. Secularized version, historical mission – very much linked to Jeffersonian empire of liberty. Those people in the USA who held these ideas were convinced that this was a good thing. US American political institutions/ideology agreed. Will accompany the US rational expansion in the 18th century. US American expansionism: very difficult. Constitution didn’t follow the flag. Extension of political institutions etc., but at the end of the century this didn’t happen. Pope won the elections with the reanexation of Texas, but Tyler (who knew he was the outgoing president) decided to act before pope could. So Tyler set things in motion for the reanexation of Texas. Sent federal troops. Necessary to engage on the frontier. Mexican war began with an incident provoked by the United States. Disputed part of the frontier then became one of the aspects of Mexican war most disputed. Some people opposed very much the Mexican war. One of the things they condemned was Americans starting the war. “Exact spot Lincoln” – kept insisting everywhere he went. “I want the government to tell me the exact spot where American blood was spilled” because Lincoln and other people knew the incident was not provoked in United States territory. Total defeat for Mexico. Taylor took Monterrey very quickly, defeated Santa Ana, Frémont led settles in California. Declared the independence of California which requested annexation to the US. Americans took Santa Fe, Veracruz and Mexico City itself. Then – big discussion on the US – some antiexpansionist that wanted agriculture annexed to the union – some antislavery – some antimilitaristic… all these ideas to oppose the war. Very large number of different combination of reasons. Treaty of peace – some voices said all of Mexico could be annexed. Proposition for a very simple reason. Huge continental mass. Needs to think about defense strategies – how to communicate, defend, etc. the pacific coasts. All the way south to tierra del fuego, south America. Very risky trip. Thinking and planning on a transcontinental canal. 1840’s they hadn’t advanced very much on how to build a canal. Strategies that proposed that it could be across the east of Tehuatepec. Reason for proposing annexation of the entire lot. Treaty of Guadalupe hidalgo ended the Mexican war – Texas and California plus most of New Mexico, Nevada, Utah and parts of Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming. Vast amount of territory in the south west. United States lubricated the negotiations by offering money to Mexico and freeing Mexico debts to American citizens. Nearly 5.000 dollars of debts to US citizens – compensation for the huge loss of Mexico (very few months after the treaty gold was discovered). Crest of this expansionist search. Southwest of US annexed – expecting Texas and other parts to be slave territories – disappointment. Already looking for other nice territories for annexation because they’re slave colonies, such as Cuba etc. annexation of territories in Central America and islands – looks like expansionism. Offered 50.000.000 to purchase Cuba – Spain rejected the offer. In this period many individual organizations organized military expeditions to Cuba. Private people getting themselves equipped, trained etc. to go to Cuba. Autonomy in the island, independentists, annexationists… wanted them to become a part of the union. Uprising of the people of Cuba. Although the successive presidents kept separating themselves from this private institutions, another problem that comes to the forefront of the policies. Britain has blown, abandoned, the idea of colonialism. But British is still a great empire – informal empire. Both of them USA and Great Britain had huge interest in transcontinental canal for economic reasons. Trans istmic railway – could control and cross central America to favor communications. Great Britain declared having a kind of protector, native American independent state called Mosquitia. Sovereignty over San Juan (Nicaragua). UK called it Greytown. Logical Easter terminal if a canal could be built cross Nicaragua. Eventually the canal was built through panama. British were taking strategical position. US can’t accept this: has to dominate any special control, anything, that could give Great Britain more power. They negotiate with Great Britain, Indians, Spanish are out of negotiation. Very successful for the rest of the world. Clayton-bulwer treaty. Non militarization agreement. What they agreed is to make any potential canal neutral. They agree not to build, control, fortify anything. Both of them will abstain from any control activity. Protect and guarantee the neutrality of any canal futurely built. Open to comers throughout the world. President for this idea of neutralizing areas in the world – 1817 treaty – war fleet on the great lakes. Leave lakes neutral. Repetition of that idea – idea that will remain the canal open to all. 50’s sudden expansionism dominated politics. Pierce+Jefferson Davies president of the confederacy. South totally dedicated to expansionist treaty. Gradualist anti-slavery proponents up until that time – abolish slavery gradually. Crisis so great and abolitionists said they were getting nowhere. 30’s anti-slavery movement split. Lots and lots of proposals – children born after certain day can be free/can be free after 21/free if they read and write. Radical approach – abolition immediately, no concessions, no compensation. Situation as we’re coming to the fifties. Supporters of manifest destiny (Pierce and Bulwer). Another treaty for territorial concession – Gadsden (1853) was a small ship of land in the river Gila. US interested from buying from Mexico another strip of land – need for transoceanic canal. Although the US must keep vigilant – very far in the future but they had an immediate option: to build a transcontinental railway. Railroad root to its advantage. Needs to set up experts in geology, deserts, mountains, land… eventually 3 ó 4 proposals of viable railway roots in different latitudes. One In particular far south. Railway would need a lot of government support. Technical reports found that the best route required a land from Mexico in order to have the best chances – attract businessmen etc. New Orleans – Red River – Huma – San Diego (route). 10.000.000 dollars for this relatively small valley. – Conscious money. Injustice, mean USA to Mexico. Overgenerous now. Gadsden had particular interest in railway building. Self-profit. End of contiguous US territorial expansion. Territories next to another forming a block. 1867 purchase of Alaska. Very indicative on how American government was thinking. Scandal in the world – secret document (Ostend manifesto) 1854. Cuba. Incident connected with an American ship – government of United States trying to provoke a war with Spain in order to legitimately have the right to conquer Cuba – ambassador in London, Spain, France. They were to meet in Oostende by order of President Pierce. Soule Marcy was the ambassador in Spain, john mason in France, and James Buchannan in Britain. Design a policy for the United States regarding Cuba. Very interested in the future of Cuba. Ostend manifesto. 1840’s – we saw Mexican war and agreement with Great Britain. Transcontinental railway line. Mexico, Oregon. Geographical area. United States very attentive. Everything that happens in the Caribbean that might affect security. Mosquitia. Great Britain – biggest empire in the world. Britain – nice interest in Latin America and Latin American republics. Innovative fashion. Considered to be one of the steps towards alternative methods of solutions. Mosquitia demilitarized. Neutral and accessible to all. Ostend manifesto INTERESTING TO LOOK FOR ON THE INTERNET. Met in Ostend by order of Marcy. Comment recommendation. Authorities had ceased in Cuba and the black ship gave sense to a document – we arrive to a conclusion… purchase Cuba from Spain at any price. Corrupt European politics and monarchies – US should separate himself from that kind of behavior. Internal document in the government. “It must be clear that Cuba is as necessary to the US as any of its present numbers”. Natural frontiers, territorial gains. US democratic expansion has not yet happened – the next idea is about the Mississippi. No natural outlet for their commercial business either than the Mississippi ocean. In later times, this hasn’t been so important. Very bad natural port. Delta channels. Very big ships, huge at the end of the XIX century. They couldn’t sail to Orleans. TWO MOST QUOTED PARTS OF THE OSTENDE MANIFESTO (OJITO EXAMEN): “As long as this system… avaricious officials”. Public opinion swayed to annexation. Leaked document. Huge scandal – extremely irated about this document. Opposed to any idea of annexation of Cuba. In the process of forming. New republican party declared that was dominated by southern expansionists. President Buchanan offered money to Spain – 130.000.000$ to buy the island. Rejected by Spain by not being honorable. In the electoral campaign of 1860 – big differences in their electoral platforms but all were OK with the acquisition of Cuba. Civil war got everything on hold. Strategic positions in America – attempt of France to try to establish in Mexico an empire with a puppet – maximilian. Puppet of the French government. US considered this intervention as a total violation of Monroe doctrine. 1865 – assassinated and substituted by Andrew Johnson and Seward (secretary of state). To France an ultimatum: violation of Monroe doctrine. US Mexico frontier packed with many people. Napoleon evacuated French troops. Successful application of the Monroe doctrine. Johnson, during the civil war had been the only senator. Expansionist initiatives concerning Canada, Alaska… Canada: existed a brotherhood of Irish Americans called the fenians, fenian much more reliable. Vulnerable to spread of diseases. Food supplies. No longer subject to availability of long straight wood planks. Faster, cheaper, carried more prices. 20 pounds, after 3.10 pounds. At the end of the century vast majority of ships embarked in the eastern Mediterranean ports. Steamship companies; tended to keep prices relatively low. Competition between British and German steamships companies. Huge increase in the amount, sheer volume of transatlantic ships. Bulky goods – grain, flower, tobacco. Those ships with very large cargos have a lot of space when they leave, they don’t fill it, and so the cargo space was made available for passengers. Quick, cheap but uncomfortable. Already began to use propaganda. After independence, those processes meant there was stiff competition seeking to attract. Developed together with industrial revolution. Paid as publicity campaigns such as British railway companies (putting them in practically deserted places so people would occupy them). Surplus – people produced enough for export, major or industrial sectors or even abroad. Attracted enough settlers to make it profitable. Spread propaganda to send agents to Europe to try and recruit settlers who would come to US. Conflictive practice – send agents to Europe to recruit people (totally ignorant of their civil/human rights) and companies found it very profitable to bring them. Trapped workers because were financed in their transportation in order to retenerles there. Large propaganda was another issue – sign contracts in their countries of origin, then bind them. 1815 – 1930 38.000.000 immigrants entered the United States. Represented approximately one third of the total population growth of the United States. For such a long time in its formative history, one of every three persons was born abroad. Not only numerical abundance, but also social interaction and cultural exchange. Vast majority of that third from Europe. Small Asian immigration towards the end of the century, later on. They come for economic reasons. Multiplicity of identities, motifs… convergence of several considerations. National/ethnic origin of this people: constantly increasing curve. From 1783 until 1895 most immigrants came from north and northwest Europe: English, Irish, Scottish, welsh, followed very closely by Germans F 0 E 0 Alsace region, German Switzerland and Scandinavians. 1895 interesting year – last years that north western European become smaller than other groups. After 1865, end of civil war, southern and eastern EU immigrants – Mediterranean and Slavic. Italians, Sicilians and Greeks. As the century advances: Turkish Empire, Balkan lands (Rumanians, Serbs, Bulgarians, Montenegrins, almenians) astro Hungarian empire (Hungarians, Romanians, Slovaks, Croats, Czechs, Slovaks, polish). Russian empire (Russians [not many though], poles, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Latvians, Estonians, Finns, Armenians). Multiplicity of different ethnic groups. Starting to appear – 1880’s-1890’s very numerous. Vast southern and eastern European flux intensifies very notably. 1895 the two lines cross. More numerous than the others – they continue to emigrate in large numbers but migratory trends are very strong. 19th century brings a huge diversity. Multi ethnic, multi-racial. General (public) attitudes and policies, and legislation. development of nationalism. Nation that cannot base its need to create a national consciousness. Issue which they have to ignore. Was not what caused the American revolution: had to be invented, constructed and formed in the minds of people. From the beginning until the late 1920’s policies were very liberal. Immigrants were allowed to come in any number – no limitation. Despite laws which congress tried to initiate. Encourage, foment immigration by governments. Public, popular confidence in the attractiveness of the united states. Confidence generally that no counteracting will take place against the constitutions. Immigrants would no longer be difficult. Would accept the values at large. Confidence in the natural Americanization process. No control/watch/education. No sense that Americanization programs had to be established – people will become American with time. Voluntary assimilation. Fundamental needs of any powerful nation. Low demographic vitality. Generally speaking, large population was considered a good thing. Immense amount of virgin territory: crying out for new settlers, preferably free white ones. After this, country acquiring more and more territory. Territory ought to be occupied, exploited within the political jurisdiction of the united states. Fairly frequent. Settler soldier – settler defender, type of person they wanted. Another issue: consideration that many immigrants were useful for the united states. Brought skills – wages (three times higher than in EU). Any special skills, techniques… (Carpentry, rum, whisky, silk worms) was considered useful. Many immigrants carefully prepared their adventure: had brought skills and money. Bought cheap tickets to economize and invest. Immigrants will be bringing with them things of value: money or jewels. Attitudes of public authorities very conscious and encouraging. Crevecoeur: “new man”. Why new man? Why is it different from other people? “Strange mix of blood not found anywhere else”. Every day, in their activities are reminded that their ancestors came no long ago. In their homes: lost homelands, links to the old world… Joel Barlow: “visions of Columbus”. Journalist, politician, essayist, speculator, landowner… patriotic poem, very conscious that icons, symbols, literary symbols of patriotism had to be created. Exciting sentiments of patriotism. “what Americans think is what Americans are”. Definition of American in a conversation between these two: Americans are not English, or Bulgarian, or Italian… they are what they think. Based on ideologies, ideas. Nationalism; based on ideologies: if you can defend, support these ideas. Base of US American identity. In practical terms, built around the American creed. Official censes of the United States. First 1790, tells us a lot about demographic and ethnic heritage of colonial period. Good starting point for the future. Necessary for the United States to have a national cense: elected on base of national population. Fewer people – fewer delegates. First congress: estimation. Law to develop that part of a constitution. Lasted such a long time – endure ever after because it’s very elastic document. Actual practice of developing the ideas – begin very quickly to pass laws which develop several aspects of their constitution. Proportionality of people in the different states. Censes – 1790: essential for political working affair. Total number of people counted; every ten years a national cense of United States. As years go by, censes get sophisticated and complicated: how many cars, children they had, domestic unit structuration, fascinating source of primary information. 300.930.000. Not documents in which people were asked to state their ethnic origins so it was done by surnames. This had a margin of error: not all Perez's come from Spain. 65-80% white population was of British stock – big margin of error but great majority. 5.5-9% white population was probably of German origin. Negroes were included – 600.098.000 – African ascent – 80% (nearly) of the total population. Exclusion of tribal Indians, not counted, no statistics in national censes. In 1790’s congress passed another law – established a theoretical framework for the process of naturalization of immigrants. Until they are citizens they cannot enjoy political rights like voting. Candidates swore the constitution before a competent magistrate – judge or designated authority prepared to take your oath. Individual has to demonstrate attachment to the principles of the constitution – not only defend the constitution by law but also in their practical life. Federal government cannot impose behavior norms in every state, so this was shown in a vague way. So each individual state interpreted the meaning. Any candidate born abroad must renounce any noble titles: French, German inheritors of noble/ aristocratic titles must reject it in order to become US citizens. IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES, 1791-2006 1791-1800, immigration = A50,000 (= estimate) 1801-10, immigration = A70,000 (= estimate) 1811-20, immigration = A114,000 (= estimate) 1820-1830 = 151,824 1831-1840 = 599,125 1841-1850 = 1,713,251 1851-1860 = 2,598,214 1861-1870 = 2,314,824 1871-1880 = 2,812,191 1881-1890 = 5,246,613 1891-1900 = 3,687,564 1901-1910 = 8,795,386 1911-1920 = 5,735,811 1921-1930 = 4,107,209 1931-1940 = 528,431 1941-1950 = 1,035,039 1951-1960 = 2,515,479 1961-1970 = 3,321,677 1971-1980 = 4,493,314 1981-1990 = 7,338,062 1991-2000 = 9,095,417 2001-2006 = 7,009,322 According to the constitution, 3/5 of that population were going to be counted. What it means – in the south (South Carolina) basis of American inhabitance – political life in South Carolina (national politics affected). Ohio – Massachusetts – Pennsylvania feel about his representatives in congress and the representatives of south Carolina? Constantly bombarded with a rhetoric. Not equal representations – black people counted but not represented. White man’s vote in the south more valid than in the north. In the south the white man votes for himself and for a small percentage of negroes. 1790’s – new federal congress creates a law which established for the first time an official procedure for naturalization. Admitted as citizen of the US? A person had to live only 2-3 years before requesting citizenship in the US. Spanish law of naturalization at that time? Borbone crown trying to attract foreigners. 20-25 years! And that wasn’t enough – in order to become a citizen: long residence and bonfired attachments – marrying a Spanish person, having children born in Spain, having patrimony. In its early years, USA thought immigration was a good thing. New era, new age, very few obligations – swear the constitution in front of a competent magistrate – show attachment to the principles of the constitution. Finally one explicit thing, not so abstract: renounce any noble titles which they might have from their European lineage. 1795 another naturalization act. By this law citizenship was restricted to free white persons. Indigenous lineage? No. only for free white persons. Admitting people in the US – elevating the number of years of residence – 5 years. No restrictive policy yet but we can see a tendency… people who were coming: French catholic priests fleeing from the revolution and other people who were not WASPs. Law says that candidates should request and renounce their original allegiance (nationality) to whatever sovern they belonged. Explicit requirement: swear constitution, 5 years, act publicly renounce their former allegiance. Proposing that individuals can do this unilaterally. I give my loyalty to the US. Always owed allegiance to your monarchs. Connection of fidelity. Reason of modern day emigrating. 1798 – very important critical moment – two terms of George Washington presidency and then John Adams. Lasts four years. His party is gradually losing electoral support – evident – expanding westwards country. Some people even moving along the Mississippi river. In a very short. Not representative of people in the south. Democratic republican. Situation in 1798. Alien and sedition act law – now you have to live for 14 years before requesting citizenship. Also empowers the president to imprison and deport any individual that the president considers undesirable or dangerous. Many French priests, Irish revolutionaries, separatists. National political context. Much more difficult for immigrants to become US citizens. Political terms – they can’t vote! Because they’re not American citizens. Trying to postpone their full integration. Postpone their full presidency. They hope that after 14 years they will naturally become conservatives and vote. Despite the law of 1800 and imprisonment of many people, the first thing Jefferson did when he was president: free people. Congress abrogated the alien and sedition laws. Jefferson puts things back to where they were. Prohibition in 1808 of the slave importation trade. Done with accordance to the clause in the constitution: flexible because it doesn’t go much in detail. It is much easier to change the law. Small minority of abolitionists: people who wanted to forbid slavery. Slavery was there but one of the most widely accepted notions: if you could insert gradual measures (you can’t, you can’t slave new people) slavery would gradually disappear. COULD NOT BE PROHIBITED IN THE NEXT 20 YEARS. But maybe after it could be abolished. Then, it was prohibited. Contraband trade did continue. Percentage of African people would become fewer and fewer… in comparison with the white population. Racist measure – trying to eliminate African American. North America was the only country that had a great birth rate. More people being born than dying. Natural growth. North America was the only country in the Americas where slave population had a natural increase. It did not stop African growth – that did very fast. Very important, internal slave trade. Northern southern states – selling those surplus, extra slaves to the deep south, where slave labor was still profitable. Several laws which will gradually will give the immigration laws: 1819 – 47 – 48 – 55. Federal laws. To protect immigrants from overcrowding and unhealthy conditions on ships. They brought them like animals, death rate very high – encourage of spread of contagious diseases. Attempt to make it difficult for immigrants to cross the Atlantic in the cheapest conditions. Make conditions safer, space, drinking water… very few restrictions in this period regarding immigration itself. State laws – issues connected with immigration. Own restriction, procedures… under legislative umbrella? Several states introduced a bond when immigrants arrived in cases where individual might become a public burden (carga publica): children without parents (orphans), very old people… people likely to become a public burden – required to give a monetary deposit on arrival. 1819 – most historical demographers would say this is the point where they consider immigration requires a legal framework. Clause, more than a law. Records of entry. Proper statistical records at ports of entrance. Register of individuals coming in the country. Solid composite figures after 1820 – legally registered. Spectacular figures involved. Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Louisiana… after the Louisiana purchase. New york. Fantastic natural harbor of the world – economic /financial leadership of the US, because of its port. Economic initiative of new york. 1898 Eyre canal was bought. Most of US exports to Europe: bulky raw materials. Flower, grain… products that took a lot of space. Americans tend to buy small quantities: manufactured items so ships had cargo space vacant – so people travelled in those spaces. It is preferable to have humans than to have nothing. Most of the ships went back to the ports they left. Cotton, tobacco, grain. 1824 law, lowered, residence required. 1790-1824 perfectly balanced pyramid. 2-5-14-5-2 years. Mid 1920’s – new democratic party are all about territorial expansion: big country, needs people. 1824 welcome everybody, two years and you become a citizen. This country feels its power as immigrants country. Bilingual education and instruction – both English and German. 1790-1830 – emigration from the Atlantic had increased. Fluctuation on men reflect temporary circumstances – pull factors on the united states. The correlation, cause effect – perceive direct influence. Beginning of US – steadily. Small beginning because of Napoleonic wars. Period of steadily increase because conditions in EU complicated, restrain their population. Governments trying to recruit those men into military service. Experience, knowledge in industrial techniques – textile machinery – English industrial revolution at that time. Competitives in United States. Governments tried to control how people live. 200.000 – 250.000 immigrants come to EU (LOOK AT PHOTOCOPY) – estimate numbers. The majority of those are coming from Ireland and Germany. Reign in a written time – house of Hannover. Not a nation state – usually large proportion during the war of independence stayed at the end. Explains a very large number of people who emigrated. Martinica, French colonies… British-Irish revolutionaries in Ireland who had participated in the Irish rebellion. New topic – 19th century. Total number of people arriving more than 5.000.000 of people. Economic crisis – cyclically. First economic crisis was beginning in 1819-21. Second: 1837-38. Next: 1843-44, 1855-1862. Series of long economic crisis that affected. 1873-1879 six long years of economic crisis: 1882-85. Preceding the Cuban war: 1893-97. 1929 wall street crash – very deep economic depression until 36-37. Generally speaking, if we were to look at every year numbers don’t go down but stop increasing. Few changes which are unnoticeable – 40’s and early 50’s, very large increase in immigration. 1844/5-1855. Not a pull factor, but a push factor in Europe. Great potato famine, tremendous crisis. Potato main source for substance. Industrialization was well on its way – this is one of the baddest crisis. It came together with very severe winters, crop failures (producing inferior quantities). It is estimated that in the late 40’s – Irish dying due to the potato famine. Also acceleration in the industrialization process. Lots of push factors. At the same time, all throughout the 19th century – suppressed very severely. Heading for destinations in the US to escape political prosecution. Aldo in 1848 en of Mexican war. US acquires 80.000 citizens of Mexican origin. Not very large numbers of Spanish speaking citizens, but the war brought new ones. Almost immediately after the treaty of Guadalupe hidalgo, gold was discovered in California. The fastest routes were by the sea. Istmos area – shorter groups. This also attracted thousands of Chinese laborers into California – because of the proximity, many laborers were attracted to California. All the northern areas were considered as mining population, seeking new veins of silver and gold. Not part of the Mexican- hispano. On the whole, a disuasory factor (civil war) not only by the endangers of being caught in the war, but also because of prosecutions and other reprisal activities. Basically, a dissuasion. Early part of the sixties – other factors – great Britain in 1860 in Crimea war in Oregon, serious trouble in India – 19th century very important colony of England there. Not a colony of settlers – this was not the case (colonialism). Great Britain developed a new way: training indigenous men into the great Britain military forces. Sikhs into the British army. Potential emigrants from EU were diverted into service in India. LOOK: 2.600.000 – 2.300.000 HANDOUT. Not as lower president can’t stop a law permanently. One of those checks and balances which are very important. Three branches of power (legislative, judicial, executive) subject to certain checks individual of the other two. Sometimes it’s very interesting because the elections might be happening soon – so they delay it until the elections. A way to make sure that one branch is totally independent of the other two. Cleveland. 1898, 1902, 1906. failed attempts. Very repeatedly. Powerful interests not so bother about being illiterate: national association of manufacturers. Obviously manufacturers prefer to have large numbers of workers, desperate, lost, in need of a job. Very rapidly industrialising and urbanising. Many of them get jobs as industrial labourers. People less rebellious, less protective… so they were opposed to literary test. German and Irish societies also opposed. Social organisation where immigrants can join and share their problems, socialise… also opposed. They felt it would harm immigration of their groups. Discriminatory against them. Cuban war, mc Kinsley, American intervention: sudden emergence of US as a great power in international affairs. Not counting the issues related to territorial and political interest. US was not a player in international politics. Not a visible power, a great power. This colossus actually does exist. It can intervene in issues concerning US interest. Became a great power reluctantly. The end of the intervention was not sceptic. Motives US used and declared for intervention – explanatory: humanitarian concerns about mortality rates. To protect Cuban civilians. Those camps were in fact serious problems. Guerrilla warfare going on. Result of the war: US without having mentioned the Philippines before, becomes the lord of the Philippines. Changes everyone’s perception on US. What will US do? Will it go with the flag – military conquest? Very difficult in domestic politics to reconcile colonial power. Cuba – procedures quickly to return autonomy to the Cuban government. All of this was debated in the US, opposed to colonial activities in parts of the US. The war did not finish and leave a satisfied sense. Took a long time to decide to join the allies. Not a great deal of popular support in the united states. New leader of the free war. Fifty years of indecision, confusion… Public attitudes. People, legislatures. Towards immigration. The law changes. Welcoming icon: statue of liberty. Gift of the French: "Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden door!" – The New Colossus Immigrants (poor, not wanted in the whole country) are welcome here. Guide into this country. Legend meant to transmit the traditional, general sense towards immigrants and immigration. 1886. attitudes still the same. Traditional, liberal immigration policy “send me those”. We can find documentary evidence sometimes violent towards immigrations. Hate even. As the century goes on, first decade of 1920 those feelings of antagonism and reject become more intense. Louder. Always an anti-catholic sentiment. In colonial period very intense against French Catholics, then Spanish Catholics… anti-Catholicism. Sentiment continued and became increasingly stronger. Different cultural values. Rejection of imperial power of Spain… etc. sustained particularly in the frontiers of the US. Florida, Texas, California… tend to increase anti catholic sentiment. After 1814’s, it was exacerbated by catholic Irishmen who immigrated in the 40’s. tended to spread out on agricultural frontiers. Different parts of the northeast. Also the Irish were very active in community clubs, local politics, urban affairs… very committed to building their churches. This made them increasingly visible. Catholic church itself was considered to be anti-American because it was non-democratic. Rigid hierarchy in its organisation. Theological / philosophical matters. Descendants of puritan protestants. Nobody to tell them how to behave. Authoritarian organisation within the US. Pope – head of the church but also a sovern in secular sense. By the king. About a third of today’s Italy in 19th century. Took an active part in international affairs. Supranational loyalty to Catholics towards the pope: undesirable submissive connection. Cultural area: social values set on literacy. Opposed to English translation of the bible. Point of total conflict – affected schooling. Opposed to public schools and secular type of learning. 40’s - we start to see a formation of secret societies: KKK nothing unusual. Many of them xenophobic towards Irish, Catholics, immigration (nativist movements – America for Americans born in America). Tended to be violent. Common for them to set bombs or start fires on churches. Markets… places where there was a symbolic value or there was concentration of people. 1844 – set fire to two Irish churches in Philadelphia. Tense 1850’s because people know there is going to be a civil war. In this period the KKK groups were also festering. KNOW NOTHING PARTY. Interrogated by anybody in authority about acts of violence or belief: “I know nothing”. Discontence, people who have not a more positive role in society. They never go away, even today. They always flower again. Tried to put political pressure on the house of representatives. Try to persuade the government to pursue and restrict access to naturalisation. “They have to come, but make it difficult for them to become US citizens”. KKK formed in 1865. many other societies of the same sort: growing through the 70’s, 80’s, 90’s… dramatically high numbers. Fantastically high. After 1890 people come not to be farmers, they come to stay in New York… big industrial cities. Much more visible. Extremely visible: poor, not Americanized, they seem dangerous, taking things away from people. Clashes where people would be killed. 20-30 people. 1887: association for American protection. Louisiana a place called Clinton. Anti-Catholic, anti- immigrant, xenophobic. 1896 year of maximum activity. 1859: origin of species published. Fantastic contribution to biology but it was vampirized into perversion of pseudo sociology. Erroneously interpreted as a sociodarwinism: fittest would be the ones to survive. Would occupy the highest levels of racial pyramid. 1880’s, pseudo scientific justification of racism and xenophobia. Herbert Spenser – responsible of this in certain way. Very well received in certain circles, everything coincides, one factor supports another… anglosaxonism very present throughout the Atlantic world. Cultures (particularly political). By definition, all the rest were inferior. Spenserism and racism: parasitical relation. They fed on each other with a vague echo of reference to Darwin. This strengthened both. But there were other priorities. All the southern states of confederacy had to come back into the union. End of war: north has won, and now they will dictate the conditions. They will come gradually as they accept the impositions. Long series of conditions. This long process is called reconstruction. 1865 – 1877. 12 long years, post-war period of reconstructing the union. Immigration is not a priority for government. Deflected political / public attention. Existed, but government paid little attention. Creation of immigration office in 1864. That law also prosecuted the law of the agencies that recruited workers. Limited the duration of the contracts to 12 months. Industrialization developed very quickly after the war. Unqualified – non skilled labourers. Many very large communities of labourers began to form. Suburban centres in the north-east. At this time, last third of the 19th century most of this immigrants are coming from south and eastern Europe. Mediterranean or Slavic people, very easily perceived as extremely different: food, clothing, language, religion… attitudes begin to change: white Anglo Saxon protestants. WASPs. People that developing this antagonistic feelings – one of their arguments are that so many different immigrants are dangerous to culture. Public discourse about cultural and racial degradation. New wave of immigrants were associated with alcoholism, slums, prostitution, domestic violence… automatically associated with these groups. There was a fear of social conflict, that it would erupt. Legitimate concern. A lot of uncoordinated violence. Constant concern that all southern Americans black Africans might emigrate north. First world war was the first opportunity for a massive African American move upwards. Fear of the working classes losing their jobs to immigrants. Constant complain. Also labelled as black lakes, esquiroles. *** EXPOSICIÓN DE LINCOLN ICON Professor Paul D. Escott "The Lincoln Icon: Thinking about Myth and Reality in Our History." Lecture, 18th January 2011. Outline. Abraham Lincoln as a mythical figure, "the deity of American civil religion." Recent developments: 1) the idea that Lincoln was more than the Great Emancipator 2) the idea that Lincoln also championed racial equality Analysis of key historical facts: A. LINCOLN. The slave states not included in the proclamation (Tennessee and fourth northern or border states). 1864 statements: They can at any moment have peace simply by laying down their arms and submitting to the national authority under the Constitution. Alter so much the Government could not, if it would, maintain war against them. The loyal people would not sustain or allow it. If questions should remain, we would adjust them by the peaceful means of legislation, conference, courts, and votes, operating only in constitutional and lawful channels. *** Achievements despite his defects and weakness. Changing attitudes / policies. 1870’s – 1920’s. attitudes becoming more and more negative/ widespread/expressed publicly. 1870’s we start to see the effects. 1875 – first federal law which restricted immigration on the US. First – since the beginning. Clear alarm bell that something is changing. Prohibits immigration of convicts. Tells us a lot about American culture, these two big categories, very indicative of a different attitude. 1870’s, 80’s, 90’s. extremely active for social reform: prisons, judicial systems, mental care hospitals, domestic violence, alcoholism… 1870’s – 80’s very strong. Certain restrictions and laws appearing. Ley seca, dry law. Manufacture, sale of alcohol forbidden. People of suspicious morals. Many expressions of antagonism and violence in the west coast, California, Chinatown where they established. Effectively prohibited any Chinese immigration. Asian immigration to US. 70’s, 80’s, 90’s – Chinese legislation. We won’t see it again until the 1920’s. window into a different kind of attitude. Xenophobia. Restrict entrance. California – number of state laws which prohibit mix racial marriages. Anti-miscegenation laws of California. This will continue and until and after the second world war. 1940’s etc. first federal law prohibiting certain categories of people. Immigration act prohibits immigration. Increases the list: excessively poor – no means of support, mental illness (they will become burdens of state) and other “undesirables”. Foreign idea. Inscription in the statue of liberty, dominant feeling and sense regarding the character of immigrants coming into the country. Discriminative, and introduced something new: immigration per capita tax of 0.5$. it is not so much the quantity as the intention. Information that was requested was more and more detailed. This per capita tax didn’t go well. Symbolic gesture – procedure of entry. By 1903 – two dollars. 1907 – four dollars. In this period, the list of category of people: epilepsy, tuberculosis, prostitutes (again). 1903, anarchists. Not categories, but kind of categories: moral scruples, illnesses. Anarchist had assassinated the president mc Kinsley. Anarchism was an ugly monster that put his head in the whole Atlantic north. Political activism, opposition… its intention was to destroy and attack the roots. Lunatics, idiots: mental illnesses. 1885 F 0 E 0 federal law which prohibited the employing employees in their countries of origin. Law that tried to regulate that practice. Abusive, exploitative contracts. Restrict the possible abuses by stating that the contracts could only last one month. That practice was finished in 1885. There was an exception: domestic service. Development of a higher middle class. Tells us a lot about affluent of certain sectors. Gilded age. Era dorada, no de oro. Things looked prosperous, nice… but it’s GILDED, not GOLD. The other exception were skilled workmen. Not ordinary workmen, skilled workmen which were capable of defending themselves to exploitative contracts. Contracts already signed – this tells us that this is a period of extraordinary expansion, but particularly the industrial. Fantastic period of take-off of American industry. Rural population until 1920. Result of this very fast continuance. Great opportunity to slow the world of the development, continuities of this country. Economic potential. 1887 – only one year after the erection of the statue of liberty. Association for American protection was founded. Nativist organization. Nativists are people that think Americans have to be white, protestant and born in the United States. Irrational name, they’re not nativists! Xenophobic, racist. Attacks Catholics and immigration. Long economic depression. 1896 – this association had the bigger number of associates. Establishing some kind of connection – long economic crisis and exploitation of connections. Same phenomena in the 1896 supreme law decision. Effects: not definitely destroyed until 1954. Desegregated American schools, until then racially desegregated. High feelings, social discontent. Anarchists were very active in this period. 1888: new federal law took another area of issues concerning immigration. Law which established procedures for the expulsion of aliens. Still susceptible to be found, deported. Even after some years of belonging to the country. Still susceptible to be deported. Could be used by the authorities to target specific individuals. Not yet a consolidated country. More anxieties came to the front – 1890’s – causes interpreted to signify that all the US territory had been occupied. Areas practically deserted, inhabited. Triumphalist declarations to the public. Political (…) of the statistics in order to launch a triumphalist message to the people. 1892, important because fourth centennial anniversary of Columbus. Very large Italian descended population in very key cities in the world. Euphoria, national strength. Message: we have occupied all our territory. Determination, strength. And so, the frontier is officially closed. End of the frontier (though it wasn’t true). For many people it produces sensation of anguish. Had been always the frontier with new opportunities. Second chance, new resources. Determination, hard work… produced in many people the contrary effect. Domestic frontier ended with the urge to find new frontiers elsewhere. We need foreign frontiers. 1890’s obtained by the US. Big investor, speculator, controller… great Britain. 20th century. Overseas, awakening as an imperialistic power. Reflecting what was happening at home. 1892 – opening of Ellis island. Central place, port of entry. Founded in 1892 when number of immigrants was getting massive. Became the processing centre for about 12.000.000 of immigrants. Another xenophobic association: 1894. League for the restriction of immigration. As a result, many legislations. VERY IMPORTANT: 1896, 1898, 1902, 1906, a series of legislative bills which wanted to impose a literacy test. Minimum reading and writing skills. Anglo north American colonies. Social and cultural value. Initially connected with divine messages through human intermediaries. Eternal salvation – whole point for living. Eventually many of these ideas became secularised. One of its most clear characteristics. Much more literate society. Public esteem, efforts to make sure people of both sexes could read and write. 1787 law of land distribution. Every municipality had to reserve one squared mile for public occupation. We need them to read the constitution to become good citizens. Series of bills, attempts on the part of congressional roots. Bills – not enacted. Didn’t become law. Vetoed by presidents. Presidents at the time exercised their constitutional right to veto those laws. Constant opposition, interested in immigrants coming because they needed mano de obra, keeping their heads down… powerful opposition. Sensitive to their point of view. 1913 – literacy test enacted. 1917. In the middle of the first world war. Literacy test introduced. After 1938 – intervention of the US in the Cuban conflict, Puerto Rico, Philippines. Marked a before and an after. Symbolically, before and after date. Unfortunate pattern of linking the means of coming out of the depression might be a war. Emerging as a great power in world affairs, meant that US social expression of antagonism towards immigrants tied down. 1890 – strategic basis in the pacific. Also the year in which the US annexed Hawaii. Significance of that particular episode: in Hawaii had been growing a community of Japanese who wanted economic expansion. Bridge to enter the US. To California (paradisiacal climax for farming and food connected industries). Racism began to grow. They had stopped Chinese but then Japanese came… Chinese, Japanese and Philippines. Adding a new ingredient: Asian ingredient in the demographic mix. Direct result of the discovery of gold – acquired California at the Guadalupe hidalgo peace treaty. Southern expansionists had always caressed the idea of a slave state. Greatest frustration for the plantations of the south. Offered economic opportunities. Arid, deserted country. Not great opportunities there. When California became a territory acquired by US, Europe rushed to California with the hope of labour. One of the first sources of labour they saw was Chinese. Auxiliary workers, work in the mines. Escape route. Conditions not optimal – not slaves but technically they were. In china there were throws of the great opium wars. Very violent wars. Enhance the political control in china. They showed very little interest in integration. Europeans intended to stay. Chinese didn’t – powerful strength of family ties. Many Chinese kept to themselves. Didn’t interact, no resources of their own to spend in anything or involve on anything. They sent all the money home. RACISM. No African Americans in California. By 1850 California became a state because it had the population. More than sufficient population. As a state. They weren’t southerners, plantation workers. Free of constitution – prohibited slavery. Some sociological historians have argued that the Asian groups were