Role & Decay of WITAN Parliament in Saxon Era: Impact on English Politics & Society, Resúmenes de Cultura Inglesa

¡Descarga Role & Decay of WITAN Parliament in Saxon Era: Impact on English Politics & Society y más Resúmenes en PDF de Cultura Inglesa solo en Docsity! THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ENGLISH CIVILIZATION 1. Refer to the historical and cultural significance of the fact that England is an Island (England's geographic position) Physical characteristics of the island itself: Area of the South East: woodlands, forests, navigable rivers, low flat coasts this made the island easy to access (flat lowlands) The fertility of the soil, natural resources, and a mild climate  made England a desirable place  THIS MADE POSSIBLE THE INVASION FROM THE CONTINENT Invaders entered the island through the south – except for the Danes and settled in the SE. The Fact that Britain is an island: Trevelyan stated that geography governs history and this can be applied to England. He also said that “the sea is the key to the history of the British people.” That England is an island and it is surrounded by the sea  has played an important role on the development of the country. Trevelyan states a kind of relationship between England and the sea  using the terms “passive and receptive”  In ancient times, England  isolated from the continent. The main line of trade was between the Mediterranean (main center of civilization) and Asia. The Levant (the east of the Mediterranean) was a very important center for trading activities  trade was between the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. Rome was the capital of the Western World  England was passive because she did not make use of the sea. o Up to the 15th century, England was PASSIVE  she did not participate actively in international trade and she did not use the sea for economic purposes o England was considered RECEPTIVE because foreigners were tempted by the fertility of the soil, the weather conditions, etc. England was a pole of attraction  it was easy to have access to England because of her geographic characteristics. o All the tribes that came to England entered the country from the southeast because of the navigable rivers and the low flatlands. o The Danish were the only ones who entered from the North. o All the tribes with the same pattern of conquest killed, subdued or pushed  the Anglo-Saxons were not expelled  that’s why England is of AS origin.  In 1453, the Turks invaded the Roman Empire, conquered areas around the Constantinople and closed the route to the Levant  no possible to use that sea route for trading  new routes were needed  the Spaniards and the Portuguese tried to discover new ways.  In 1492, in one of these attempts, Columbus discovered America by chance.  Important period between 1492-1498  the history of England changed.  England reached a much better position  since the island was between America and Europe o England turned active and acquisitive.  Active  she acted on the sea  participating in international trade with the entire continent  she was situated between Europe and America and started to make use of the sea.  Acquisitive  she started conquering new lands  this marked the beginning of the British Empire  In times of Queen Elizabeth, England emerged as the most important country in the world  two empires 1º in America, 2º the Commonwealth. [In the 17th C England became an Empire and had command of the seas. As a result of commercial trade and Capitalism it became the first country to undergo industrialization.] 2. Refer to the significance of the Iberian and Celtic settlements in the development of the English culture.  They built a monument, the Stonehenge, which represents the first sight of civilization in the island.  The Celts invaded the Iberians in the Iron Age, they killed most of the previous inhabitants, and some survivors were pushed to the North and West (Scotland and Wales).  Significance of the Iberians and Celts: Celts and Iberians were not important in the growth of the English culture, since other invaders interrupted their process of development. They developed their cultures in Wales, Scotland and Ireland. Iberians Celts 1 Period Stone-Bronze Age Iron Age Origin, how they invaded The Iberians were the first invaders (although not the first inhabitants, who were the Homo sapiens) of England. They came from North Africa and invaded the Island in the Stone Age through the Southeast. The Celts invaded the Iberians during the Iron Age. They belonged to different tribal waves of the same tribe (Northern Germany and the Netherlands) It was easy for the Celts to impose themselves because they were better armed; they had iron weapons and were warriors. They killed the Iberians and pushed the survivors to the North (Scotland) and the West (Wales) and imposed themselves and their language because they were a superior civilization. Reason of invasion (settlement) The climate of England was comparatively mild because of the sea and the Gulf Stream. Invaders were attracted by the climate and the fertility of the soil, which was very rich in minerals (agriculture). Physical features Short, dark-haired people, dark- skinned and long-headed people. They had Germanic origin: fair hair, tall, white- skinned, strong, vigorous, blood-thirsty people Main activities Hunting, fishing, later on agriculture and eventually trade. They found copper and tin. (They reached civilization because they were able to enter the bronze age) They devoted themselves to ship building. Agriculture continued to progress in the Iron Age under the Celts (not very important): oat and wheat. Ship and oxen were the chief sources of accumulative wealth. Horses were used to drag the war chariots of the Celtic Chiefs They were devoted to arts and crafts. They were seamen, pirates, but mainly fighters. Social organization Tribalism: they were organized in tribes, clans; they were kindred since family bonds played an important part in their lives. Members of the tribe shared custom and language and followed the rules of a tribal chief. Tribalism: they developed the compensation system; if the member of a family was killed the tribe could take revenge or ask for compensation in terms of ship or oxen. The Britons, the Goidels and the Belgae spoke different dialects of the Celtic language. Political organization - - Territorial organization - - Economic organization They were country dwellers, so they devoted themselves to farming. Some trade may have been carried out through barter. The wealthy ones owned larger number of ship and oxen. Trade: within the island itself between tribes. Ports trading with Ireland for gold. Agriculture and trade were rudimentary. Skilful at metal work Religion They were pagans, heathen people. They were pagans and their religion was Druidism (a nature-based religion that consists in the worship of nature, a religion of fear and witchcraft) Legacy Stonehenge, which represents the first sight of civilization in the island. Maiden Castle Britain was named after the Celtic tribe Britons They had a good sense of beauty, which influenced English art, especially painting. (Interlaced pattern and Illuminations from the Book of Celts) Language: Gaelic in Wales, 2 6. What was the significance of the Anglo-Saxon settlement in the development of the English culture? Anglo-Saxons Peri od III-IV Centuries Anglo-Saxon raids and attacks, but fail V Century Anglo-Saxon settlement started, wholesale migration VI and VII Centuries Anglo-Saxons expanded to the West. The country divided in two kingdoms. Origin and how they invaded They came from the Northern area of Europe (Germany, Denmark, Jutland and Lower Rhine) They used the Roman roads to settle along the South-eastern coast. They destroyed the Latin culture, pushed some of the Celts to Wales and Scotland and imposed their traditional language to the remaining Celts. The Angles settled in the East The Saxons settled in the South The Jutes settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight The conquest was achieved in two expeditions: 1. Warriors arrived through the navigable rivers, burned chased and slaughtered the early inhabitants. 2. Families and farmers arrived later Physical features Nordic people, tall, fair-haired, white-skinned, strong, brave, bloodthirsty warriors, uncivilized and savages. Aim of the settlement They settled in England because they were looking for a place to develop their agriculture. They were country dwellers. Language They spoke different Germanic dialects, which constitute the beginnings of Old English. Religion They worshiped the different Nordic Gods. They were pagan Main activities Economy  War-like people, pirates, sea hunters, seafarers, country dwellers, farmers.  Some men were sailors  Some men were crafts: made iron tools (blacksmiths)  Agriculture → Open-field system: no fences, the land was divided into 3 (system of rotation: one part was left fallow to recover its fertility and the other two were sown). People received strips/hides of land and the number of strips depended on the social status, the land was cultivated in a communal way.  Trade was not an important activity. Anglo-Saxons were self-sufficient.  Salt was important to preserve meat during the summer, so they imported it. Social organizatio n Thanes: aristocracy, free men who enjoyed privileges. They owned land and oxen. They were the warriors that should fight and die for the king. They had duties at Court and obligations to the Church. Churls: ordinary free men who formed the lower middle classes. They worked in agriculture. They possessed one hide of land and could become a Thane if they accumulated 5 hides of land (Social Mobility) Slaves: Non-free men. They were considered to be chattel (bought and sold). Lowest class made up by the ex Celts. The owner of slaves could manumit them (a ceremony at a public place, because society had to know that the slave was now free: Manumission) Political Organizatio n  Feudalism: loyalty to the Lord. A chief could attract people from different tribes (a man to man relationship). The followers had to fight for the Lord and the Lord provided protection to his followers. The Lord became responsible for all the actions of his followers, even his past actions.  Tribalism : duty to the kinship (family, tribe)  When Tribalism and Feudalism collided, duty to the Lord prevailed.  Wergild : if a follower was killed, it was normally the lord who demanded the payment of the price (oxen) of this person from the killer or the killer’s family (the amount of money depended on the social classes).  Witan : Advisory body made up of clergy men and the aristocracy, Thanes. It was not representative of all social sectors. -Wisdom was the qualification needed to be a member -Class and advisory body which met three times a year. (Called the Witenagemot) -gave advice to the Monarch when he asked for. -Granted lands. 5 -Gave its consent to the king’s laws and taxes -Approved the election of ministers After the coming of Christianity, this included the denomination of bishops. -Appointed and disposed kings in case of misgovernment or when the succession was doubtful “The settlement of the Nordic peoples in our island is the governing event in the British history” Governing  significant on the development of the English culture The Anglo-Saxon settlement, which took place in the 5th C, meant the beginning of the English culture and civilization.  Socially speaking, the Anglo-Saxons became the ancestors of the English people, since they kept their Nordic racial traces unmingled.  Linguistically, Anglo-Saxons spoke old English.  Economically, they introduced the open-field system to improve agricultural tasks, which was used until the Agrarian Revolution in the 18th C.  Politically, the Anglo-Saxons gave origin to the administrative institutions. Their settlement meant the first phase of the Parliament embodied in the Witan. In addition, Edward “The Elder” became Bretwalda, first king who embodied monarchy.  In religious matters, the Roman Church was introduced as the official religion of the country. 7. Mention the steps leading to the political unity of the country in the Anglo-Saxon period. The Heptarchy: Sometimes tribes combined either for greater strength or under the influence of powerful leaders to create small kingdoms. Seven of these are eventually recognized: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Kent, Essex, Sussex and Wessex. These are known as the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy, but the grouping was not very permanent. Sometimes there were two or more kingdoms united under one king, at other times some kingdoms were divided under separate rulers. In the early part of the 7th C, Northumbria gained political supremacy over the other kingdoms and held an undoubted leadership in literature and learning as well. In the 8th C, this leadership passed to Mercia. Finally, in the 9th C, Wessex, under the guidance of Egbert, began to extend its influence until 830 ac when all England acknowledged Egbert as Overlord (Supreme ruler). The result can hardly be called a united kingdom, but West Saxon kings were able to maintain their claim to be kings of all the English. Under Alfred, Wessex attained a higher degree of prosperity and considerable enlightenment. Steps leading to Political Unity 1º Step→ Heptarchy: some tribal chiefs started to subdue others and were considered as monarchs. This led to the emergence of seven kingdoms: Kent, Wessex, Essex, Sussex, Mercia, Northumbria, and East Anglia. In the IX century, King Egbert of Wessex was acknowledged as the Bretwalda and became the first monarch king. 2º Step→ The coming of the Christianity: in the VI century Christianity reached England from the North and the East. The Celtic stream or Welsh Christianity reached the North, it had a system of organization based on rural monasteries, its outlook was ascetic, anti-hierarchical and they did not want to obey the Pope. The Roman stream or Roman Christianity reached the East. The pope Gregory “the Great” sent missionaries to England (St Augustine). The Roman Church had a hierarchical organization starting from the Pope. King Oswy of Northumbria summoned the Synod of Whitby in 664 and decided in favour of Roman Christianity, because he wanted to keep the links with the continent. Significance of the introduction of Roman Christianity in England in Anglo-Saxon times: -Economically: the links with the Latin-Mediterranean civilisations were re-established. -Politically and Religiously: Churchmen became chief advisers of the Crown. Catholic hierarchy became the paradigm for future English political organization. *3º Step→ Danish Invasion: In the IX Century the Danes invaded England. They destroyed some monasteries that were the centre of learning. Albert, Egbert’s son, was able to stop them under the Treaty of Wedmore that divided England into two: -The Danelaw (Northeast), governed by the Danes -The rest (South), ruled by Alfred After Alfred’s death, Edward “The Elder” re-conquered the Danelaw. England became united again and Edward “The Elder” became the first Monarch of England. *4º Step→ Norman Conquest: After the Battle of Hastings (1066) William the Conqueror (Norman) 6 came to the English throne and ruled the whole country. Together with the Norman conquest, the feudal system contributed to the unification of the country. In times of the Normans, A-S feudalism was improved into Territorial Feudalism: 1- feudalism was the social and political domination of a military and land-owning aristocracy (Lipson) 2- Agriculture was a means of production. It was their main source of wealth, a sign of prestige and social status. *Not during the Anglo-Saxon period but it did lead to the political unity. 8. Refer to the coming of Christianity in the Anglo-Saxon period The Celtic Stream/ Welsh Christianity The Roman stream/ Roman Christianity In the 7th c it reached Northumbria. It had a system of organisation based on rural monasteries. Its outlook was antihierachical  it was monastic  it did not want to obey the pope It represented the universalistic order of the late empire. The Pope Gregory sent missionaries to England (St. Augustine)  The Roman Church had a hierarchical organization  the Pope was the head In the VI century Christianity reached England from the North and the East. The pope Gregory “the Great” sent missionaries to England, St Augustine came from Rome to convert the kingdom to Christianity; Kent adopted Christianity in the 6th C. St Aidan converted Northumbria in the 7th C (monasteries), St Patrick converted Ireland, and Columba converted Scotland. The Celtic stream or Welsh Christianity reached the North, it had a monastic system of organization based on rural monasteries, its outlook was ascetic, anti-hierarchical and they did not want to obey the Pope. The Roman stream or Roman Christianity reached the East. The Roman Church had a hierarchical organization starting from the Pope. King Oswy of Northumbria summoned the Synod of Whitby in 664 and decided in favour of Roman Christianity, because he wanted to keep the links with the continent.  Significance of the introduction of Roman Christianity in England in Anglo-Saxon times: -Economically: the links with the Latin-Mediterranean civilisations were re-established. -Politically and Religiously: The English kings borrowed from this civil service of the church, forms and policies fitted to the needs of the infant State. Churchmen became chief advisers of the Crown. Catholic hierarchy became the paradigm for future English political organization. -Socially: Christianity meant also the return of learning to the island, and the beginning among the barbarians of a political and legal civilization. Christianity taught charity, humility, self-discipline, a concern about spiritual things, an active conscience, a distinction between soul and body, next life perpetually governing this one, the submission of the freeman to the priest, great stress on dogma and the religious duty of persecuting every heathen or heretic.. 9. On what principles was the Anglo-Saxon society organized? In the political field, FEUDALISM: o TRIBAL CHIEFS turned to be the LORDS on the island  Their political organization was based on personal and individual ties  it was non-territorial feudalism, based on man-to-man relationship, with the presence of an aristocracy and cooperation within communities  Two principles of Feudalism  Loyalty to one’s lord  the tribal chief had followers who belong to his tribe and fought for him, invading other tribes and when they succeeded, they settled down with their families. If a follower died, the lord received a heriot.  Duty to one’s kin: if a follower died, the family asked for compensation, the wergild, which was a sign of distinction between social classes. o When these two principles collided, the loyalty to one’s lord prevailed o men joined each other to make rules for training new members in skill working  tribalism paved the way for Feudalism because of the importance of man-o-man relationship (individualism) Social organization Thanes: aristocracy, free men who enjoyed privileges. They owned land and oxen. They were the warriors that should fight and die for the king. They had duties at Court and obligations to the 7 they had adopted in France. Main activities They were highly advanced on military strategies, they built buildings. William built the Tower of London to protect himself. They also built churches, and abbeys. They were mainly traders, and devoted themselves to commerce. Economy Feudalism was improved by the Normans, it became strictly territorial.  the conquest resulted in the subordination of England to a Norman aristocracy. Introduction of military feudalism  the tenure of land in return for military services. Social organization The Anglo-Saxon aristocracy disappeared. It was replaced by the Norman aristocracy. -Aristocracy: They were Normans and free men, made up of: - Barons: upper class, greater tenants in chief -Knights: lower class. Mesne tenants. Fighting men, were summoned and made them swear loyalty to the Lord. (There was no middle class, Churls) -Villains: lower class made up of landless Anglo-Saxons who were half-free men. They were bound to the soil and they were not allowed to leave the Manor. They worked the land but they were not landowners. Political Organization -Anglo-Saxon England had developed a highly organized central and local government and an effective judicial system. All these were retained and utilised by William. The common law of England continued to be administered. -The Anglo-Saxon Witan became the King’s Curia Regis: a meeting of the royal tenants in chief, both lay and ecclesiastical. -The royal household was at the centre of royal government. -Administrative officials were Normans -In local government the Anglo-Saxon shire and hundred courts continued to function as units of administration and justice, but with changes: Bishops and Earls ceased to preside over shire courts, Bishops now had their own ecclesiastical cases from the secular courts, which allowed the introduction of the canon law in England. -Native Sheriffs were replaced by Norman nobles. -The Conqueror collected the customary dues such as revenue from justice and income from royal lands. Language English vernacular, the language of literature, law and administration was replaced by Latin. The aristocracy spoke French. Latin was the language of the Church and the administration. Significance of the conquest Administratively: The Witan turned to be called the Great Council (advisory body) Lay people came to be tried by Feudal Courts, instead of Ecclesiastical Courts. Anglo-Saxon Feudalism was improved into Territorial Feudalism Socially: Many of the English Thanes had been killed at Hastings. Those who escaped became villains. The deterioration of the Churls had began with the Danish invasion. With the coming of the Normans, they finally lost all their lands. The middle class disappeared and two classes remained: Aristocracy (upper class) and Villeins (lower class). Culturally: their coming meant a return to the Mediterranean civilisation. Three languages were spoken: -Latin: Church members, language of learning -French: aristocracy -English: the lower classes, which were the masses. Architecture: many castles and churches were built. No change in the racial stock as there were only military troops. 13. Refer to the significance of the Norman Conquest. 10 With the coming of the Normans, UNITY of England became stronger, because of the strong personality and economic position of William I. William, while establishing a rigorously feudal system, had successfully prevented England from falling into anarchy of political feudalism prevalent on the Continent. In political terms, William’s victory destroyed England’s link with Scandinavia, bringing the country instead into close contact with Western Europe. The Norman Conquest put an end to the old-age separatism of Northern England and of the Danelaw in opposition to the kingship in London and Wessex. It broke the resistance of Scandinavian society to Norman feudalism. William the Conqueror is presented in contemporary chronicles as a ruthless tyrant who put down rebellion and devastated vast areas, especially in his pacification of the North in 1069-70. But he was an able administrator. Perhaps one of the greatest contributions to England’s future was the linking up of England with continental affairs. If the country had been conquered again by the Danes, as seemed possible, it might have remained a backwater of European development. As it happened, England was linked economically and culturally to France and continental Europe. The coming of the Normans meant coming again into contact with a Latin civilization. The Danes enjoyed the advantages of a superior civilization. Three languages were spoken: French (court and aristocracy), Latin (church and education) and English (lower classes). When William conquered England and centralized power, he took measures to consolidate his position. As a consequence, the political unity of the country was strengthened. Feudalism also contributed to this unity. Normans did not introduce Feudalism since it had being developed in England by the A-Ss. The Norman feudalism became territorial (climax of the feudal system). Immediate consequences of the Norman Conquest: William took several measures to maintain/strengthen his position as Monarch  also the political unity of the country was strengthened 1) He kept the rich manors for himself  source of power/money 2) The gran of lands in different shires  preventing the barons from using an army 3) He sent royal commissioners to each shire to represent the royal authority 4) Appointment of bishops and abbots  the upper ranks of the clergy were normanised 5) The building of castles  castles could only be built with royal permission 6) The doomsday book  a survey of what every baron possessed 7) Danegeld  a tax imposed by the AS assessed on the value of land 8) Oath of Salisbury  to swear loyalty to the monarch. 14. Refer to the origins of Parliament in the Anglo-Saxon and Norman periods. During the Saxon period, we can talk about a kind of Parliament which was the WITAN, a group of wise men belonging to the aristocracy (mainly members of the Church), whose main function was to advise the king. The WITAN could not choose a king, but could help whenever the succession to the throne was doubtful, and they could also dethrone the king in case of misgovernment. It was not representative.  The witan  it was a class body, made up of members of the church and the thanes  it was a class body, but not representative of all social sectors  Advisory body: it met three times a year (Christmas/Easter and Pentecostes) and whenever the Monarch needed advice. Functions:  Give advice to the Monarch when asked for  Appoint and depose kings in case of misgovernment/succession only when doubtful  Consent to laws and taxes. During the Norman Period, England had a National Council named the “CURIA REGIS”. It was made up of Earls, barons, and members of the Church. They held land directly from the King, and had the same functions as the WITAN. It was not representative.  it continued to be a Class body because it only represented upper classes since land tenure resulted in being represented  it performed the same advisory and consulting functions as the Witan. Medieval England Early (XI, XII, XIII) Late (XIV, XV) 11 15. Define and characterize Feudalism Lipson: “Feudalism is the social and political DOMINATION of a military and land-owning ARISTOCRACY.” It is a system of land tenure, according to which LAND is held in return for services rendered. The King granted lands to the Barons in return for military services. Similarly, the Barons granted lands to the Knights for military services. These were the upper classes. The lower class consisted of the Villeins, who worked the land but didn't own it, and they were paid for their services. FEUDALISM was a political, social, legal and economic system that prevailed in Europe thorugh the EMA. It was a way because it affected all the fields. Land was the most important source of wealth until the 18th C, and agriculture of course was the most important activity. Therefore, the ones who possessed lands had the domain in both social and political fields. Feudalism consisted on a man to man relationship; there was a powerful aristocracy and there was a clear differentiation of social classes and their functions and services. Until the arrival of William the Conqueror, the presence of the monarch was weak, and also was weak the sense of nationality. The presence of the Church was powerful in every field. Moreover, there was little sense of individualism and more a sense of community. CHARACTERISTICS OF FEUDALISM  Man-to-man relationship  Clear differentiation of social classes: Aristocracy and Villeins (no middle class).  Clear differentiation of functions  Land was the only important means of production.  Communal activities, structure of society (individualism played a minor role)  Presence of a powerful Church  Presence of a very powerful Aristocracy = Presence of a very weak lower class (Villeins)  Politically speaking, the presence of a powerful aristocracy meant the presence of a weak king and therefore the concept of the nation was very weak as well. With the coming of the Normans, Feudalism became territorial. 16. What were the characteristics of the Feudal System imposed by William I? Through which measures did he impose this system? When William conquered England and centralized power, he took measures to consolidate his position, he knew that land was very important to keep power. As a consequence, the political unity of the country was strengthened. Feudalism also contributed to this unity. Normans did not introduce Feudalism since it had being developed in England by the A-Ss. The Norman feudalism became territorial (climax of the feudal system). The measures William took to strengthen his position as monarch and checked the power of the nobility were:  He confiscated the lands that belonged to the Anglo-Saxons and kept the best lands for himself.  To weaken the power of the Barons, he granted them small pieces of land scattered all over the country.  He granted lands in Different Shires so as to avoid any conflict between the Lords.  He didn’t allow aristocrats to build castles near his own. He only allowed building castles on the coasts of the country for the sake of protection from invasions.  He built the Tower of London and other buildings to show his power.  He sent Sheriffs to keep an eye on barons and collect the Danegeld (tax imposed by Anglo-Saxon).  He sent to each shire Royal Commissioners called Bailiffs to represent the royal authority and control his possessions.  The Doomsday Book served as a record of the possessions of the Barons.  The Oath of Salisbury (1086): an act of loyalty by which Barons and Knights swore to protect and support the King in case of an attack.  Shire Courts: Sheriffs were in charge of them. They acted as representatives of the monarch and worked to check that the people were ready to fight for the crown if necessary.  Manorial Courts were given to Barons, who were in charge of minor crimes. At that time, wrong doers had to pay money to the crown.  Church Courts were given to the clergy to solve religious problems. 17. Refer to the facts that led to the collapse of the Feudal system in the Late Middle Ages. During the EMA: 12 ECONOMIC FIELD: Early Middle Ages Late Middle Ages URBAN SOCIETY TRADE Not important Grew and expanded MARKET Small and local Expanded SYSTEM OF PRODUCTION Guild System Simple process of production No division of labour Capital: not important NATURAL ECONOMY Domestic System Complex process of production Division of Labour Capital: important MONEY ECONOMY The lower classes (craftsmen) became economically dependent on merchants who possessed the capital. They invested the capital in raw material and in the wages. They started to challenge the aristocracy with traders and knights. They were not the owners of the raw material now provided by the HMC. They were not the owners of the finished product. They could not fix the price. Now it was the merchants and traders who were in charge of the finished product in the local market. HMC paid a salary to craftsmen. Their position deteriorated under the capitalist system. Capital began to play an important role, which caused the collapse of the Guild System. The Guild System was the system of production of the EMA that was the product of a town economy. It was based on barter, exchange of goods. Under this system the craftsmen had an advantageous position because they owned the raw material and the final production. The market was local and small. Trade was not important. There was no division of labour. The capital was not important since each borough was self-sufficient. In the Late Middle Ages, the Guild system was replaced by the Domestic System. Under this system the craftsmen lost their advantageous position and became half-dependent on middlemen (merchants and traders) since they only crafter the product with their tools. The middlemen bought the raw material to the Squires and gave it to the Craftsmen. Therefore, the latter were the owners of neither the raw material nor the final product. They could not fix the price of the product; instead, they were paid a wage for their services. They thus emerged as the wage-working class. The system was called Domestic System because the craftsmen worked at home with 15 EARLY MIDDLE AGES GUILD SYSTEM LATE MIDDLE AGES DOMESTIC SYSTEM -System of production in a time when trade was unimportant. -Manorial system: workers at Manors, performing both handicraft and trade activities. -Limited, local market. -Simple process of production. No division of labour. Craftsmen were independent: 1. produced their own raw material. 2. fixed the price. 3. worked at home with their own tools of production 4. sold the final product. 5. Capital wasn’t important because it wasn’t necessary. -System of production which replaced the Guild System when trade grew. -Domestic system: worked at home with their own tools for a wage. -International market. -Complex process of production so a division of labour was necessary to fit the needs of the market: Mercantile function performed by the middle men. Handicraft performed by the craftsmen. The middlemen (merchants and traders) bought to the squires the raw material and gave it to the craftsmen. Craftsmen became half dependent on the middle-men. They worked for a wage at home with their own tools. Yet, the raw material and the final product belonged to the middle men. Capital became important as the middlemen performed a mercantile function: the middlemen accumulated wealth to buy raw material, and later fixed the price and sold the final product. their own tools. The growth of trade, especially with the Netherlands brought about the expansion of the market. There were more needs to satisfy, so the processes of production became more complex, and a division of labour was necessary. The capital started to play an important role and Early Capitalism emerged. This new system was later consolidated with the Industrial Revolution. POLITICAL FIELD: Deterioration of Aristocracy; power of nobility was checked by the monarch and the HMC. The power of the nobility began to be challenged - From the middles classes - From the king: Edward I (1272 – 1307) passes statutes to check its power (to have control over taxation)  Statute of Gloucester/ Quo Warranto (1278): in order to hold a private court, the barons had to have authorization of the monarch. The king frequently sent representatives to check this.  Statute of Quia Emptores (1290): since great tenants had to sell their lands, the purchaser had to owe service not to the seller but the seller’s overlord, who was often the monarch. 21. Refer to the consequences of the Black Death.  Immediate consequence: Villeins realized how important they were (upon the population)  Long term consequences: Decay of Feudalism (upon the economy) The pestilence killed half of the population, mostly villeins. The shortage of labour force makes the villeins discover their importance and influence and began to demand higher wages. Villeins demanded release and instead of services they would pay a certain amount yearly. They would hold the land themselves and hire other free labourers. Some villeins became Copyholders, and most became free labourers as it was more profitable. Also, Barons and Knights ceased to pay military services to their lords and paid an annual tribute for land keeping. Because these practices attacked the very essence of Feudalism, the system collapsed. 22. Refer to the position of the Aristocracy in the Early Middle Ages In the Early Middle Ages, there was the presence of a Powerful Aristocracy, even more powerful than the King. The aristocracy was composed of Barons, who held the lands. Land was the most important source of wealth until the 18th C, and agriculture of course was the most important activity. Therefore, the ones who held lands had the domain in both social and political fields. Barons and knights did not possess lands, they just held them. The figure of the monarch, as the head, was very weak because some villains did not know about the existence of a king, so they did not feel as members of a nation. 23. Refer to the factors that led to the weakening of the power of Aristocracy in the Late Middle Ages. In the Late Middle Ages, the Aristocracy began to be challenged by the rising middle classes as the power of the latter was gradually consolidated. The economic and social developments, as well as the decay of feudalism and rise of capitalism, led to the weakening of the power of aristocracy. Early Middle Ages Factors Late Middle Ages Aristocracy (Barons, Knights and Clergymen) Villains (Land labourers and Craftsmen) Decay of Feudalism Emergence of Capitalism Rural England Higher Middle Class (Squire/Gentry) Lower Middle Class (Tenant farmers and Copy-holders) Lower class (Free Labourers) Urban England Higher Middle Class (Bourgeoisie) Working Class (Craftsmen, Wage earning class) 16 The King Edward I started to check the power of Aristocracy. He issued to statutes that increases the power of the King:  Statute of Gloucester or Quo Warranto (1298): the monarch eliminated baronial courts established without his authorization. They could not be held without the king’s permission.  Statute of Quia Emptores (1290): the purchaser had to pay homage (money or military service) to the seller’s overlord (who was usually the monarch) 17 The HMCs emerged as a powerful class  made up by the knights and the bourgeoisie  they had money to challenge the aristocracy Emergence of the working or wage-earning class Deterioration of the aristocracy 27. Refer to the Position of the Church in the Early Middle Ages. In the Early Middle Ages, there was a CONSOLIDATION of the economic, social, political, spiritual and cultural power of the Church. One of the characteristics of Feudalism was the importance of the Church. Economically: Members of the church were the wealthy land tenants who were interested in administrative and political issues; high fees demanded for the performance of sacraments. Politically: Church members held important positions in government, since they were the only learned people (Witan advised the monarch and made up the king’s court). Culturally: The Church was the centre of learning; they owned the monasteries. Education was in the Church’s hands. Morally: The Church set up the values and patterns of behaviour according to the God-centred philosophy; the centre of the universe was God and the possibility of reaching eternal life. 28. Refer to the factors that contributed to the decline of the power and prestige of the Church in the Late Middle Ages. In the Late Middle Ages, there was a deterioration of the economic, social, political, spiritual and cultural power of the Church. This decay happened both within the Church and outside the Church: WITHIN THE CHURCH  Worldliness Greed of the Church: Church members became interested in administering lands, politics, etc. and disregarded spiritual affairs. Friars were criticised as they had forgotten their principles of poverty, chastity, and obedience.  Pluralism : One member was appointed to several functions at the same time (priest + bishop + cardinal).  Absenteeism: This accumulation of functions meant that when a person was covering one function, he was absent in all the others.  Lack of vocation and preparation (of the lower ranks of the Church) :  People entered the Church because it was the only way to improve their social standing, to achieve education, and to make a living.  Priests devoted more time to administer their estates than to accomplish their religious duties.  Due to the Black Death, many priests died and as a consequence new uneducated men became priests.  John Wyclif and the Lollard Movement : Religious movement against the power, wealth and privileges of the church. Wyclif was a reformer who criticized the evil practices of Church and denied its essential dogma: the theory of Transubstantiation. He argued that:  Priests should get back to the life of poverty  The Bible was the only authentic rule of faith, thus it should be translated into the vernacular language.  The theory of Transubstantiation was just a Catholic dogma not a Christian one. OUTSIDE THE CHURCH  The rise of the lay culture : In the XIV and XV centuries the Church lost the monopoly in education due to the introduction of the printing press. Education, then, ceased to be the only way to acquire wealth and prestige. Many laymen were well educated and started thinking critically, so they were in a position to oppose the Church. The emergence of Capitalism contributed to the power of the laymen over the clergy and strengthened the feeling of individualism. Laymen began to be appointed to the great offices of state, while high churchmen began to fall out of political life.  Development of a critical attitude : the Church became the object of criticism.  The Black Death: many priests died and the Church was forced to accept persons who were not learned men (this affected its prestige a lot).  100 Years War: A war between England and France in times of Edward III (XIV c). France was said to have supported the Scots, who wanted to become free from the English. England obtained the victory over France and this reinforced the feeling of nationalism. 20  Babylonish Captivity: the Pope was living in Avignon, under the control of the French. There was a feeling of dissatisfaction among the English as it was difficult for them to respect a Pope who was in the hands of their enemies.  Philosophical development: the application of REASON contributed to the questioning of the Church. The God-centred philosophy was replaced by the man-centred philosophy. Humanism and Renaissance. These factors contributed to two feelings in the English society. 1. Feeling of Anticlericalism (social connotation)  against the malpractices of the Church 2. Feeling of Anti Papalism (political connotation)  reaction of the HMC due to the economic and political power of the Pope 28. What were the factors that led to the growth of the feeling of Anticlericalism in the LMA? Social connotation: the reaction of the laymen against the malpractices and greediness of the members of the Church. The lay culture was against absenteeism, pluralism the lack of vocation and preparation. The Black Death: many priests died and the Church was forced to accept persons who were not learned men (this affected its prestige a lot) Lack of vocation and preparation: People entered the Church because it was the only way to improve their social standing, to achieve education, and to make a living Emergence of the Higher Middle Classes: This group became educated people, and were in a position to question the Church. (Rise of a Lay Culture) Worldliness Greed of the Church: Church members became interested in administering lands, politics, etc. and disregarded spiritual affairs. Lollard Movement of Wycliffe: Religious reformer who criticized the evil practices of Church and denied its essential dogma: the theory of Transubstantiation. He wanted to translate the bible so more people could have access to it. Pluralism: One member was appointed to several functions at the same time (priest + bishop + cardinal). Absenteeism: This accumulation of functions meant that when a person was covering one function, he was absent in all the others. 29. What were the factors that led to the growth of the feeling of Anti Papalism in the LMA? Political connotation: the reaction on the part of the High Middle Classes against the Church mainly due to the political and economic power of the Pope. Mostly due to the conflicts between the Monarch and the Pope Babylonish Captivity: A French Pope was elected and claimed that he should live in Avignon, and not in Rome. As a result, English people considered the Pope to be an ally of their enemies (England was at that time at war with France). Thus, sending money to the Pope, meant sending money to their enemies (The Hundred Years War) Feeling of Nationalism due to the rivalry between England and France (100 Year War) In the Late Middle Ages, the Church was seriously questioned. 30. Refer to the checks to the power of the Church (Statutes of Mortmain, Provisors and Praemunire).  William I : The monarch demanded that the landowners including the Pope should pay homage to the Crown. On the other hand, the Pope demanded that the monarch should pay homage to the Church as a representative of God on Earth. William accepted the establishment of Church Courts, appointed bishops and archbishops. All the members that belonged to the Church were tried by the Church Courts, this was against a uniform system of justice.  Henry I : He stated that the members of the Church were supposed to pay for the lands they possessed. In addition, the struggle between the Crown and the Pope was about who had the power to appoint bishops and archbishops. So, they decided that:  Members of the church were to feudal pay homage as landowners.  The Monarch kept the right to appoint members of the Church.  The Pope kept the right to invest with the symbols of office.  Henry II: He was aware of the fact that the system of justice was not uniform, he wanted to reduce the power of the Church Courts, but the Church opposed. He decided to appoint Thomas Becket as Archbishop of 21 Canterbury. Then, he issued a document called the Constitutions of Clarendon which stated that that if a member of the clergy was found guilty in the Church courts, he must be degraded from his orders and then be brought before ordinary courts and no appeals could be made to Rome without the King’s consent. Thomas Becket was murdered and the King decided not to impose the Constitution of Clarendon.  John Lackland: He wanted to appoint Grey as archbishop who was a common man with no preparation, yet the Pope was against his decision because he thought that the Monarch’s duty was not to appoint archbishops. The Pope appointed Stephen Langton as Archbishop but he was not allowed to enter England, thus the Pope declared England under Interdict, i.e., all religious services came to an end. The English people were left adrift in religious matters. Finally Lackland recognised the Pope as Overlord, so the Church won the battle again. [The Church remained powerful during the Early Middle Ages. However, it lost prestige during the LMA]  Edward I: He passed a statute so as to attack the economic position of the Church (anticlericalism). Statute of Mortmain: it limited the power of the English clergy to acquire further properties from laymen by prohibiting the granting of lands to the Church except with the expressed permission of the King. (Land was given to the church so as to be forgiven for their sins)  Edward III: England used to send money to the Pope in Rome. After the war between England a France (The 100 years War), a French man was elected as the Pope and moved to Avignon. (Babylonish Captivity), and they felt that they were sending money to the enemy. Thus, Edward passed two statutes to limit the power of the Pope over the English Church: Statute of Provisors (1351): It forbade the sending of money to the Pope without the authorization of the King. Statute of Praemunire (1353): it stated that it was illegal to appeal to Roman Court when the decisions were taken by the English Church courts. It also forbade the entrance of Papal Bulls to the country without the king’s permission. [These were attacks to the economic and political power of the church, but didn’t challenge the spiritual authority of the Pope] 31. Refer to John Wycliffe and the Lollard Movement. Significance. John Wycliffe and the Lollard Movement: Religious movement against the power, wealth and privileges of the church. Wycliffe was a reformer who criticized the evil practices of Church and denied its essential dogma: the theory of Transubstantiation. He argued that:  Priests should get back to the life of poverty; they should no longer own lands.  The Bible was the only authentic rule of faith, thus it should be translated into the vernacular language so that everybody could have a more direct contact with God (the relationship between man and God should be closer).  The theory of Transubstantiation (the Sacrament by means of which the wine turns into the blood of Christ and the bread into his body) was just a Catholic dogma not a Christian one. Wycliffe said that it was just a symbolic ritual and not something real. 32. Refer to the education in the Early and Late Middle Ages. (Primary and Secondary education. The creation of universities) Early Middle Ages Late Middle Ages Primary and Secondary Education Elementary education provided by Nunneries or Song Schools was attached to Cathedral, Parish Churches or Grammar Schools. Private Chapels or Chantries consisted of singing, reading and simple instruction in the faith. → such elementary schools gave humble folks the academic education to have access to grammar schools. Main subjects: Latin, Grammar, and composition. All the teachers were licenced and were authorized to teach, by a bishop. Many educational institutions were still directed by the Church and had ecclesiastical aims. Chantries became extremely popular. The 15th C meant a turning point. Society became very complex and sophisticated because of the rise of the lay culture, and also because of the need of a variety of technical skills outside the Church sphere. With the rise of capitalism many skills were needed to cope with trade. This constituted the emergence of schools founded by merchants, gilds and traders. Its purpose was technical training in crafts and trade. Also the invention of the printing press which meant that learning could be at the reach of 22 Tudor England 1485 – 1603 Two Hypotheses: Break or Continuity  Break: the coming of Tudors meant → a break between the Middle Ages and the Modern Age. → beginnings of Modern Age: England as a Modern nation and leading power in the world.  Continuity: The developments of the Tudor period were the climax of processes that had started in the Late Middle Ages. Important factor in the Tudor period:  The discovery of America in 1492  1st Tudor Monarch: Henry VII (1485) 1- Refer to the economic panorama of England at the beginning of the Tudor Period. (In the field of agriculture and trade) Enclosure, struggle between two forms of land utilization, consolidation of capitalism. o In agriculture  agriculture was still the main source of production. Sheep-raising and trade became as important. The effects of the Black Death were still present but the population started to increase. England had to satisfy the needs of this growing population and trade with America. More crops needed to be frown and more wool needed to be produced. As a result of the immense acceleration of pasture-farming, the open fields were swept away to give way to commercialism. o In Trade  wool trade consolidated in the 16th c. With the discovery of America, England enjoyed a better position for trade and it gained the monopoly over the seas after the defeat of the Spanish Armada.  Mercantilism emerged.  Mercantilism: a protectionist policy whose main goal was to foster production at home so as to become self sufficing/ a planned national economy based on self-sufficiency, under the state control. Mercantilism was adopted because it was a need of the time: the expansion of the market made the country to change to market economy and the growth of individualism had brought about a fear of social discontent. Decline in the economy in the second half of the 14th C and most of the 15th C because of the impact of the Black Death. → Two solutions:  Alienation of the Demesne (by the tenant farmers –the new middle class in the middle ages- and devoted those lands to grow corn.)  Change arable land to pasture (for sheep raising, but produced less food) Towards the end of the 15th C, the economy was recovering and the population was growing, which meant a growth in demand for food. Struggle between two forms of land utilization: arable land vs pasture, which became a struggle between two sectors of the rural society: Tenant Farmers (interested in agriculture) and big Landholders (interested in sheep raising). Big Landholders decided to enclose the common lands (the forests, where people got wood and fed some animals, that belonged to the community) to raise more sheep→ this meant less production of food. The population complained to the monarch and legislation was passed against enclosures. But they continued anyway. Factors that affected agriculture  Expansion of the market: there was a growth in trade with the Netherlands. Wool trade acquired importance. Due to the increase in the demand for wool, there was an acceleration of pasture farming; the open fields were swept away. The export of wool was profitable. The sheep farmer invaded the cornfield, so the open fields were enclosed.  Discovery of new sea routes  Growth of trade  The rise and consolidation of the high middle classes of merchants and traders (which meant a weakening of the nobility) was due to the wool trade with the Netherlands which then led to Capitalism. 25 2- Refer to the consolidation of the Higher-Middle classes in the Tudor Period. Factors that lead to the consolidation of the Higher Middle classes in the Tudor Period:  Discovery of America  Intercursus Magnus (1486): it was an act passed by Henry VII, which favoured the English merchants and traders, especially wool merchants. By means of this act, Henry VII obtained favourable terms for selling wool to the Netherlands. Therefore, the monarch became popular among merchants and traders.  Dissolution of the monasteries (1539): in the economic field, in times of Henry VIII merchants and traders acquired the lands of the clergymen at low prices. Political field: if the owning of land was a requisite to be a Member of Parliament, merchants and traders could become parliamentary members and the bourgeoisie became representative. In the social field: with the acquisition of land, they emerged as the new gentry.  Defeat of the Spanish Armada (Queen Elizabeth): it gave England the command of the seas, since she began to trade actively all over the continent, so the market became international. Spain lost the monopoly of trade, while England became the leading sea power.  The decline of the power of the nobility :  Statute of Quia Emptores (1290): stated that if the Lord decided to lease his lands, the new buyer had to perform military service to the supreme lord  Statute of Gloucester or Quo Warranto (1278): was passed to check baronial courts. It established that baronial courts couldn’t be held without the permission of the king.  Black Death: it made its contribution by affecting the landowners because of the scarcity of labour force, since some labourers realized about their importance and demanded higher wages. As a consequence, noblemen had to divide their states and lease them or devote their lands to pasture.  100 Year’s War (under Henry III): It contributed to the consolidation of the feeling of nationalism. The figure of the monarch became a symbol of the nation and he became more important and more powerful than the noblemen.  The War of the Roses (under Richard III): it was a war between the Lancasters (red rose) and the Yorks (white rose) for having the control of the throne. The Lancasters won and confiscated the lands and possessions of the Yorks. Many noblemen died and those who survived lost their possession and wealth.  Henry VII was also to blame for the decay of the nobility because he was ambition. In order to consolidate his position as a monarch, he took measures that affected the position of the nobility: 1. Benevolences : with the imposition of benevolences the nobility was compelled to contribute with money to the crown. 2. Middle class appointments : the king began to appoint merchants and traders to political posts instead of appointing noblemen. The nobility lost their monopoly over political posts; they had to share political power with members of the HMC. The king also reorganized the Star Chamber. 3. Sumptuary Laws : they put an end to two practices -The practice of Livery→ some people were paid for fighting for a House, they had to wear uniforms and badges, through this law retainers were no longer allowed to wear uniforms. -The practice of Maintenance→ according to this practice Lords went to courts with their supporters, but now it was illegal to appeal for a lawsuit accompanied by retainers. Noblemen were no longer tried by ordinary courts, but by the courts of the Star Chamber (made up of the king’s advisors who imposed heavy fines on the members of the nobility), which dealt with cases in which powerful noblemen were involved. 3- Refer to the role and importance of the Parliament in the Tudor Period. (Composition, functions, frequency of meetings. Relationship Monarch-parliament) Role and importance of Parliament under the Tudors:  Parliament was still an advisory body  It had some control over finance and taxation gained in the Magna Carta 1215, and it had a good relationship with the monarch based on a community of interests against the Church.  control finance through taxation  It had an active participation in the process of Reformation, which was carried out through acts of Parliament. Structure: 26  Due to the War of Roses and their economic deterioration, the nobles lost their monopoly in politics. Moreover, the members of the Church lost their right to be members sof the Parliament due to the confiscation of church lands. There was a community of interests between the Monarch and the High middle classes against the power of the Church. The members of the higher middle classes gained the power to be members of parliament when they bought the lands confiscated from the churchmen, and constituted the House of Commons. House of Lords: aristocracy and some members of the Church House of Commons: higher middle classes, new gentry: merchants and traders. Relationship between the Parliament and the Monarch:  The House of Commons demanded political stability in order to make economic progress possible. They supported the monarch because he approved their policies, which in turn favoured their economic interests. Frequency of meetings:  The parliament only met when the monarch summoned it. Their meetings were not so frequent because monarchs were wealthy so they didn’t often ask for money. 4- Define and characterize mercantilism. Explain why this economic policy was applied and why England adhered to mercantilism in the Tudor Period. Mercantilism was a planned national economic policy based on self-sufficiency (Lipson). In the 16th England was a self-sufficing country. Self-sufficiency did exist in the Middle Ages, but now it was National. In order to be self-sufficient, a country should produce all its primary necessities, have its own mercantile marine, and use foreign trade only to supply deficiencies of the products they couldn’t produce at home in exchange for their surplus production. As a consequence of the economic changes brought about by the growth of Trade and the expansion of the market, the monarchy was called to adopt a new economic policy: MERCANTILISM. The reason for the adoption of this economic policy was a consequence of:  The expansion of the market (the voyagers of discovery, the discovery of America): from local to international  The growth of individualism: from a communal basis to an individual basis  The fear of social discontent: people began to demand sanctions based on a rigid industrial discipline from the state in order to prevent abuses from guilds and to foster honesty. Mercantilism is an economic policy within the Capitalist system. It was adopted at home and in the international trade. It lasted in home industry only for one century and in the field of international trade, it was applied for 3 centuries. Mercantilism implied mainly on the one hand, a policy of State control, i.e. the state controlled the economic and industrial activities in the home industry through restrictions, and on international trade through patents of monopoly (intended to be a protectionist policy that fostered infant industry). On the other hand, the application of protectionist policies would be applied to the industry, agriculture and navigation.  Industry: regulations of exports and imports to encourage the development of the home industry and protect them against foreign competitors. It was carried out through a complex system of tariffs and duties in relation to exports and imports. Heavy taxes were levied on the export of raw material (wool), so as to keep it in the country. At the same time it levied heavy taxes on foreign manufactured goods so as to prevent competition with the national market. The taxes were lower if finished products were exported. The state controlled: prices, dimensions, quality (products) technical training, wages (workers).  Agriculture: the Corn laws were agrarian legislations which protected corn growers; they fostered the export of corn and prohibited its import when prices were low at home. This measure protected the corn 27 an attempt to restrict ecclesiastical privileges and curb the power of the Church courts and the extent of Papal authority in England.) During the Late Middle Ages: Feeling of Anticlericalism, Absenteeism, Pluralism, lack of vocation and preparation of the lower ranks of the clergy, John Wycliffe and the Lollard movement, the Worldiness and the Greed of the Church, Antipapalism, the 100 Year’s War, the Babylonish Captivity (the Statute of Provisors, the Statute of Mortmain), the rise of the Lay culture and the philosophical developments of the Late Middle Ages (Humanism and Renaissance) The Reformation is the climax, the last stage of these feelings. CONNOTATIONS The immediate cause for the break with Rome was that Henry VIII wanted to get divorced from Catherine of Aragon (Royal Divorce) so he could remarry, and the Pope would not let him. However, an Anglican Archbishop declares the marriage null himself, and Henry marries Anne Boleyn. (Cranmet became Archbishop of Canterbury) ACTS PASSED After his marriage, Henry VIII had Parliament pass a series of acts to check the power of the Church: Act against Abuses (1529): to put an end to the Church’s excessive fees for the performance of sacraments. (The benefit of the clergy was abolished) Annates Act (1532): The act forbade the sending of Annates (money paid by the newly appointed bishops sent to Rome) to Rome and affected the economic power of the Pope. Act against Appeals (1533): it forbade appeals to Rome against a decision taken by the English throne. Act of Succession (1534): Declared Henry VIII’s second marriage legal and Anne Boleyn’s children the rightful heirs to the throne. Act of Supremacy (1535): Marked the bridge with Rome since the monarch, and not the Pope, was the head of the Church in England. The king declares himself the supreme head of the Church in England. Act Dissolving Monasteries: Monastic houses, lands, and properties were confiscated and nationalized by the Crown. The monarch sold them to the higher middle classes. This also generated a change in education because monasteries used to be centers of education. To remedy the situation the following monarch opened the “Edward VI Grammar Schools”. SIGNIFICANCE Politically: It meant a break with Rome. The monarch became the head of the Church. Tudor monarchs disliked the idea of having a ruler above, thus they rejected the Pope as a political and religious figure and controlled the English Church as its supreme head. Economically: The economic power of the Church was affected, and the economic power of the Higher Middle Classes consolidated as they could buy the lands and properties that had been confiscated. 6 Acts of Religion: Henry was a Catholic man and he did not approve of Protestant ideas. Before dying he issued a document stating that he was Catholic in every respect, except in recognizing the authority of the Pope as the supreme head of the Church. 10- Refer to the Reformation under Edward VI. Antecedents. Consequences. Changes. Edward VI was too young and weak to rule, so the second stage of the Reformation is mostly carried out by two Lord Protectors: Edward's uncle, the Duke of Somerset , and the Duke of Northumberland. During this stage, the English Church becomes strongly and definitely Protestant. ANTECEDENTS Lollard movement: They questioned the power of the church and the lifestyle of its members: their worldliness, greed and materialistic attitude. They supported, among other things, the translation of the Bible. Capitalism: Rise of the lay culture and development of critical attitude towards the Church. 30 Humanism: It was a Renaissance philosophy that put emphasis on man and his intellect. ACTS PASSED Duke of Somerset. He repealed doctrinal legislation and restrictions on printing and the use of Scriptures. He had churches whitewashed, and images and relics removed from them. He also passed the first Act of Uniformity (1549) which enforced the use of the Book of Common Prayer for religious services. Duke of Northumberland. This stage means the consolidation of Protestantism All service books were abolished, except for the Book of Common Prayer. An act was passed for the destruction of the remaining paintings and images. Second Act of Uniformity (1552): New edition of the Book of Common Prayer, more Protestant in nature. 42 articles of religion passed: The theory of transubstantiation was denied. CONSEQUENCES Religion: There are changes in dogma: England becomes Protestant. There is an appeal to private judgment, and a rejection of the essential Catholic Doctrine. Education: The funds acquired through the suppression of chantries were used to found and support schools. SIGNIFICANCE England became a protestant country in times of Edward VI, at this stage the theory of Transubstantiation was denied, the main Catholic dogma was denied. CATHOLIC INTERLUDE: MARY TUDOR (1553-1558). When Edward died, she became the Queen of England. She married Philip of Spain, a strong Catholic. The Queen was devoted to her husband; thus, in this brief period England came back to Catholicism. Mary decided to put an end to Protestantism and began persecuting Protestants and anglican people. She had Cranmer executed. 11- Refer to Elizabeth’s Religious settlement. Significance. Acts passed. Consequences. The third and last stage of the Reformation takes place during Elizabeth’s reign. She was not a particularly religious person; however, she was concerned about politics, and used religion to achieve political unity. Her main concern was the nation, since she wanted to reconcile and unify England. It is during her reign that the Church of England is formally established. Three important bills were passed: Act of Supremacy (1559): Re-established Royal Supremacy, stating that she was the supreme governor, so the Catholics still believed in the Pope as the Head. Act of Uniformity (1559): It reintroduced use of the Book of Common Prayer written by Cranmer. For example, attendance to church was made compulsory, and non-compliance was penalized. It also allowed for a greater deal of individual interpretation. 39 Articles of Religion (1571): This document defines the principles and doctrines of the Church of England (it is still current today). Transubstantiation was not denied. SIGNIFICANCE Political and Religious Unity. Achievement of a National Church The Church took a mid-position, since Elizabeth’s intention was to reunite the nation first. CONSEQUENCES: The Anglican Church was established by law. The Reformation strengthened the feeling of nationalism and the growth of the Modern National State. CATHOLICISM PROTESTANTISM  Christianism has services in Latin  Sacraments: Baptism, Eucharist, Marriage, Holy orders, among others  Hierarchical organization  Clerical celibacy  Priests: mediator between man and god (god’s representative on Earth)  Transubstantiation  Protestantism had services in English  Sacraments: Baptism and Eucharist  No Hierarchical organization  No celibacy, ministers were allowed to marry  Ministers instead of priests  Priesthood of all believers, ministers, just guides.  Consubstantiation  Simplicity of rites, services 31  Presence of images, ornaments and vestments. Ceremonies were sacred  Bible in Latin  Bible in English 12- Define Humanism. Refer to Humanism on the Continent and In England. Main representatives. Humanism was a cultural, philosophical and intellectual movement of Renaissance that emphasized the personal worth of the individual. Humanism is conceived as a doctrine, an attitude or a way of life cantered on man and his reasoning capabilities. It originated in Florence, Italy in the 14th C. But it wasn’t until the end of 15th C., the last two decades of the 15th C. that it reached England. English humanism was different from the one in the continent. It developed as a result of the revival of the greek and latin classics and a renewed confidence in the ability of human beings to determine by themselves truth and falsehood.  Humanism on the continent: on the continent humanism was above all a secular movement whose main aim was to put an end to the monopoly of the Church as the only source of education. Humanism aimed at self- reliance, self-expression, and the development of the personality. It developed outside the Church.  Humanism in England. Why did Humanism develop? With the rise of the middle classes, merchants and tenants became aware of their importance for the State and also of their educational abilities. All this gave way to the growth of individualism. It was also a reaction against the medieval scholastic system which was a system of philosophical and theological teaching based mainly on the authority of the church. Humanism developed within the Church. It began at Oxford University where the Oxford Reformers began to criticise the corruption and malpractices of the church. English humanism wanted both to break down the rigid scholastic system and to introduce ecclesiastical reform. Humanism influenced secondary and university education. (The process of transformation was interrupted when the monasteries and chantries were dissolved which meant the disappearance of many schools). Representatives Martin Luther: German catholic who reacted against the abuses and malpractices of the Church. He denied the theory of transubstantiation. In 1517 Pope Leo X was raising funds to build St Peters Cathedral in Rome and he sent a monk on a tour through Germany to sell indulgences (pardon for people sins). Luther reacted against the practice and issued his 95 Theses. John Calvin: went on developing Luther’s ideas in France and Switzerland. John Knox: developed Calvin ideas and brought them to Scotland. In England it was a moral, intellectual and religious movement while in the continent was secular. The most prominent English Humanists was Erasmus, who criticized the obscured practices of the Church. Then, we can mention Thomas More (social humanism). 13- Characterize the English Renaissance. The Renaissance was a movement that originated in Florence, Italy, during the fifteenth and the early sixteenth centuries; later, it spread to the rest of Europe. It meant the rebirth and reawakening of the Greek and Roman classics, such as philosophy, art and language. Its development has been attributed to the growth of confidence in the potential of man. The renaissance thought was expressed in every aspect of culture: music, literature, architecture, painting, science, and education. The philosophy of the Renaissance was Humanism. During the Renaissance, men were the centres of life and everything went around them. Also, their reasoning capacities were considered more important than faith in God. However, England saw little of the developments brought by Renaissance up until approximately a century later from its beginning. The birth of English Renaissance is generally related to the end of the War of the Roses in 1485 and the rise of the Tudor dynasty, whereas the movement is considered to have reached its peak during the Elizabethan period. The main reasons for Renaissance having arrived to England later are many. Geographically speaking, England's isolation always set a dissonance with what was going on in the continent, thus delaying any influence from the rest of Europe. This was further increased by the fact that the English Reformation had severed ties with Rome, rendering the English people unwilling to follow the trends coming from Italy. As a result, the ever- growing sense of nationalism promoted an adherence to the Gothic shapes of the Tudor style instead of the new Renaissentist trends in buildings. 14- The Rise of Science. 32 develop without state control)  Expansion of the Empire: colonies were set up to provide raw material. SOCIAL PANORAMA Social mobility between the upper and middle classes due to economic reasons:  Titles of nobility were sold to get money for the government, so the classes that had money bought them and many members of the higher middle classes became lay peers.  Most of the members of the higher middle classes started to be members of the gentry because they acquired land. Social classes: The ruling class  The Peers (members of the nobility and lay peers)  The Gentry (big landholders and some members of the higher middle classes) Ruled class  Yeomen (tenant farmers, copyholders, landholders)  Common people (poor people, labouring people, servants) Community of interests between city dwellers and country dwellers (both interested in land and trade 3. Refer to the rise of early Liberalism. Define it and mention the factors that led to its emergence and development. List the most outstanding characteristics of the ideology as wells as its aims in the different fields. Early Liberalism Definition Laski: the new philosophy that evolved to justify the new world that had come into being.  New social order: The Higher Middles classes now formed part of the government. They became educated and developed a critical attitude.  New economic order: Emergence of capitalism. The city replaced the country → CAPITALIST ORDER Russell: A method of reconciling intellectual and ethical individualism. Emphasis was put on intellect and humans moral. Aims Religious: toleration and freedom of conscience (second half of XVII C) - puritanism (first half of XVII C) Legal: supremacy of the law (individuals protected by law) → achieved after the Glorious Revolution Political: Constitutional Monarchy (Parliament as a permanent element in the machinery of the government) → achieved after the Glorious Revolution (Magna Carta: antecedent) Economic: Laissez faire in home industry and free trade in international industry (against state control and mercantilism) Factors  Voyages of discovery  The reformation  The Revival of Learning  The Revival of Individualism  Capitalism  Consolidation of centralised and effective national state  The Rise of Science  Contribution of important thinkers 35  Humanism Characteristics  All men are born equal  Emphasis on the individual and his reasoning capacities  Right of property acquired through effort and labour (against hereditary property)  Against the Medieval Order: a powerful monarch, a powerful church, the Feudal system, aristocracy and the doctrine of the Church.  Reaction against dogmatism and absolutism  Religious toleration, Modern Protestantism 4. Compare and contrast Hobbes and Locke’s ideas in the field of political philosophy. Hobbes and Locke: The Contractual State They were political thinkers that belonged to the middle classes and were against the Divine Hereditary Right of the monarch. They both were strong followers of Bertrand Russell's idea that all men were equal. They explained the origin of civil government in terms of a contract. Thomas Hobbes John Locke  English  Middle Class  Studied at Oxford  Empiricist  Leviathan  Supporter of absolute monarchy. He was a royalist. He fought for the King. (Philosophy during the Tudor and Stuart periods).  English  Middle Class  Studied at Oxford  Empiricist  The Founder of the Age of Reason  The philosopher of the Glorious Revolution  Supporter of democracy. Locke’s philosophy prevailed in England because of the Glorious Revolution & the achievement of liberal aims. 36 James I of England → 1603-25 Conflict between the monarch and puritans and the monarch and Catholics. Monarch and puritans: He was King of Scotland (Presbyterian country) so the puritans cherished hope. But they were dismissed at Hampton Court conference and decided to migrate to Holland. Monarch and Catholics: he was the son of Mary Stuart Queen of Scots (Catholic). Catholic cherished hope à Penalties for Gunpowder plot (attempt to blow the House of Parliament by Guy Fawkes) James I of England (James VI of Scotland): conflicts with Parliament due to his absolutism Political Reasons  Strong supporter of the Divine Hereditary Right of Kings  Reluctant to consult parliament  Monarch: absolute power, above criticism, no checks on royal power Economic Reasons  Monarchs reluctance to accept Parliamentary control over taxation 37 CONTRACTUAL STATE Aspect Hobbes Locke State of Nature  State of War  State of peace, law of nature (divine commands), a law that exists (not imposed by any human being, moral obligation between each other, men are free, not bound by any law)  Freedom and equality. Social Contract  Reason to put an end to the nature of war.  The citizens signed the social contract (they would obey the Leviathan and as citizens they would lose all their rights: this type of government is a Commonwealth)  Ruler=absolute  Reason  need for a common judge.  The people and the government signed the contract and people can resist if the government violated the contract.  Men had the right of property  Contract between the RULER and the RULED Government  Characteristics of the Leviathan: powerful, no division of powers, no trade unions, no political parties, the Leviathan is also head of the Church, the Sovereign decides everything.  Absolut Monarchy  No right of rebellion  Systems of checks and balances  Separation of the government: legislative (supreme), executive and judicial  The government was not all-powerful  Constitutional monarchy Property  The Leviathan created property.  All laws of property were subject to the Sovereign  The government could not take property.  Men had the right of property inalienable right Aims of the Contract  To establish peace  To protect life, property and liberty Ends of the Contract  The contract was indefinite. Exceptions: the right of self-preservation (even against the monarch) and a man has no duty to a ruler that has no power to protect him.  The contract was terminable and renewable  The owners of land could vote (men)  concept of democracy in a limited way Divine Right Theory  Both of them believed that the origin of government originated on Earth as a consequence of a social contract. They were against this theory. Origin of Government: SOCIAL CONTRACT among people.  King Charles I appointed William Laud as Archbishop of Canterbury.  He wanted to impose a new Prayer’s Book in Scotland. The Scots united and promised to “labour by all means lawful to recover the purity of the gospel”. The monarch decided to raise an army to subdue the Scots, but it was a failure.  Thomas Wentworth: he advised the King to summon Parliament to solve the conflict in Scotland → they summoned a fourth Parliament. Fourth Parliament  MPs insisted on Constitutional Monarchy and the Supremacy of the Law.  MPs wanted the removal of grievances in order to grant money  They also wanted a peaceful settlement of Scotland  The king and his counsellors had agreed that it would be hopeless to expect any help from Parliament.  The Parliament lasted only three weeks. The King dissolved the Parliament. In the mean time Scotland advanced into England and asked for compensation for all the time and effort it had caused them the English imposition of the Prayer Book. This compensation meant money, so the King had to summon Parliament. Fifth Parliament / Long Parliament → 1640-60 Agreed in relation to taxation and disagreed on religion matters Ways in which Parliament secured sovereignty:  Parliament could not be dissolved without its consent  Taxation only to be imposed with the consent of Parliament (the monarch’s previous practices to raise money were illegal)  Triennial Act : parliament had to be summoned every three years.  The act of Attainder : the MPs wanted the impeachment of Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, so they passed an act stating that Wentworth had committed offences deserving death without trial. The monarch did not agree, but had to because he needed economic support. The king signed the Act and Wentworth was beheaded. 6. Refer to the most important religious issues in times of Charles I. Religious Field:  King Charles I appointed William Laud as Archbishop of Canterbury.  He wanted to impose a new Prayer’s Book in Scotland. The Scots united and promised to “labour by all means lawful to recover the purity of the gospel”. The monarch decided to raise an army to subdue the Scots, but it was a failure.  Thomas Wentworth: he advised the King to summon Parliament to solve the conflict in Scotland → they summoned a fourth Parliament. The Bishops’ War (1639/1640) Encyclopaedia Britannica: “These were two brief campaigns that were fought between Charles I and the Scots. The wars were the result of Charles’ endeavour to enforce Anglican observances in the Scottish Church and of the determination of the Scots to abolish episcopacy”. After a visit to Scotland, Archbishop Laud reported to the king that the people there had no religion. That was because they were Presbyterians, who hated the Prayer Book, vestments and images as relics of popery. Laud’s movement for church reform was soon exported to the king’s Presbyterian subjects in Scotland. Charles ruled three kingdoms with different customs, laws and religions. His desire to bring them into conformity was always strong though his ability to do so was weak. In 1637, the attempt to introduce a new Prayer Book in Scotland was met with riot and ultimately with rebellion. In 1638, a Scottish National Governant bound the nation to resist innovations in religion, and the following year an army of defence was raised. Charles I had to meet rebellion with force and required money from Parliament. He believed that he would be supported by the rebels, but Laud’s innovations had created profound hostility in England. The Short Parliament was dissolved. Charles gathered an English force, a Feudal Army, and marched toward the border in 1639. Lacking sufficient funds and confidence in his troops placed under Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford. This Army was made up of Northern and Western districts’ men, who were more conservative. They wanted to subdue the Scots. But this Feudal Army had forgotten about fighting. The Scots were larger in number and were better equipped. Charles agreed to leave the Scots alone. The first Bishops’ War ended without battle. 40 In 1640, the Scots invaded England and captured Newcastle, Durham and Northumberland. Charles I had to accept a treaty whereby he paid for the upkeep of the Scottish army and agreed to call another Parliament. This was called Long Parliament. MPs demanded the imprisonment of Strafford and Laud. In 1641, Strafford was executed according to the Act of Attainder and Laud was sent to the Tower of London and put to death in 1645 by Act of Attainder. 7. Refer to the civil war: general causes and immediate causes. Economic, political, social and religious issues underlying the conflict. The two groups that fought the war: social background and principles each group upheld.  Grand Remonstrance  Militia Bill  19 Propositions Immediate causes of the Civil War  Confrontation among members of Parliament as regards religion: some MPs were strong Puritans while some others supported the mid position of the Church of England. The Puritans, who wanted to introduce reforms, suggested the Root and Branch Bill to put an end to the hierarchical organization of the Church of England (Pym and Hampden). But, the Bill was dropped because it could not reach the majority of the votes. Yet, the Bill showed the differences within Parliament in the religious field for the first time.  Irish Rebellion → The Irish Rebellion of 1641 began as an attempted coup d'état by Irish Catholic gentry, who tried to seize control of the English administration in Ireland to force concessions for the Catholics living under English rule. The coup failed and the rebellion developed into an ethnic conflict between native Irish Catholics on one side, and English and Scottish Protestant settlers on the other. This began a conflict known as the Irish Confederate Wars. The rising was sparked by Catholic fears of an impending invasion of Ireland by anti-Catholic forces of the English Long Parliament and the Scottish Covenanters, who were defying the authority of King Charles I (king of England, Scotland, and Ireland). In turn, the rebels' suspected association with Charles helped start the English Civil War. The English and Scottish Parliaments refused to raise an army to put down the rebellion unless it was under their command rather than the King's. The Irish rebellion broke out in October 1641 and was followed by several months of violent chaos before the Irish Catholic upper classes and clergy formed the Catholic Confederation in the summer of 1642. The Confederation became a de facto government of most of Ireland, free from the control of the English administration and loosely aligned with the Royalist side in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The subsequent Irish Confederate Wars continued in Ireland until the 1650s, when Oliver Cromwell's New Model Army decisively defeated the Irish Catholics and Royalists, and re-conquered the country.  Grand Remonstrance : Document that enumerated the malpractices that the monarch had held during the 11 Years of Tyranny. There was a long discussion among the MPs, because not all members of the House of Commons were in favour of the document. Finally the document was passed, but in the House of Commons there were two clearly differentiated tendencies. Fields Traits Consequences Group Cavaliers Round Heads -“Religious Independence” was achieved. -People disliked the enforcement of a fixed Church system, they wanted complete freedom for all Puritan forms of worship. Religious -For the Anglican Church -No changes in the Book of Common Prayer -Supported Puritanism -They were for all the Liberal aims or ideas, except in the religious field. -They wanted to make the Church more Protestant Political -Strong supporters of the Divine Hereditary Right of King -They supported the -For Constitutional Monarchy -They boosted a permanent Parliament -For the time being, the Monarchy was abolished -The House of Lords was abolished and half of House of Commons was 41 King -They had conservative ideas to have a say in the affair of government. also abolished -Failure in the attempt at a Constitutional Monarchy -The country was ruled by Cromwell and his followers. -THE CROMWELLIAN INTERREGNUM -A Council State was formed to carry on the day-to-day business government. Economic For Mercantilism (state-control and intervention in home industry and international trade) Laissez faire in Home Industry (free-hand in the management of economic affairs). The Round Heads won the Civil War. Yet, the only Liberal aim achieved after the war was the attainment of Laissez faire in Home Industry. Social Big Landholders (countryside) From the north and west Merchants and traders (towns and cities) Small landholders from the southeast Some landholders from the southeast (influenced by the new ideas of the continent) The Civil War brought about mobility of social classes: The new Gentry became more important and strengthened, since the confiscated land was bought by merchants and traders. Legal No recognition about any other institution above the monarch For the Supremacy of the Law and the right of the individual to be defended No achievement of the Supremacy of the Law Importance  The Monarch was defeated. He was brought to court to be judged for high treason.  Cromwell was responsible for the creation of a special court to treat the King. There was disagreement among MPs, thus Cromwell did away with those who did not approve of the creation of this special court, through arrestment or rejection to have a say in Parliament.  1649→ accused of high treason against Parliament and the people, Charles I was executed. 8. Refer to Oliver Cromwell’s interregnum. Main achievements. THE CROMWELLIAN INTERREGNUM  From 1649 to 1660, England was a republic; Monarchy was abolished along with the House of Lords and the Anglican Church.  From 1649 to 1653, England was governed by the Rump Parliament: that fragment of the Long Parliament which accepted Pride’s Purge 3 and the Regicide 4 and which assumed onto itself all legislative and executive power.  From December 1653 until September 1658, Oliver Cromwell ruled England as Lord Protector and Head of State.  Cromwell as Head of Executive had to rule with a Council of State.  Domestic Affairs: 3 Pride's Purge was an event that took place in December 1648, during the Second English Civil War, when troops under the command of Colonel Thomas Pride forcibly removed from the Long Parliament all those who were not supporters of the Grandees in the New Model Army and the Independents. 4 The term ‘regicide’ was the name given to those who signed the death warrant of Charles I. Prominent on the document is the signature of Oliver Cromwell, the most famous regicide, but there are in total 59 names of regicides on the death warrant. After the Restoration in 1660, little mercy was shown to any man still alive who had signed the late king’s death warrant. 42  Test Act (1673) : compelled all people holding official position to declare their disbelief in the essential doctrine of the Catholic Church. A number of Catholics in high places were forced to declare their faith, which had been in secret, for example the Duke of York.  The Parliament did not grant money to the king for the third war against the Dutch. Therefore, the scheme with the French also decayed.  The king tried to win the confidence of parliament back by taking as chief minister its most influential member: Sir Thomas Osborne. Osborne Ashley Royalist/ Cavalier Formed the Court Party Prevented the dissolution of Parliament Round Head Formed the Country Party Favoured the dissolution of Parliament. 12. Refer to the origin and growth of political parties. Social background of and principles upheld by each party. 1642 Osborne - Cavalier Ashley - Round Head 1673 Court Group Country Group 1679 Emergence of Political parties as such TORIES WHIGS General idea -Supporters of the crown -For the established order and against changes -Conservative outlook. -Opponents of the King and Royal policies. -Progressive, for innovations. -Fight for liberal ideas. Social background -Representative of the landed interests -Big landholders from the North Inhabitants of the countryside -Representative of the commercial interests. -Members of the higher middle classes: Merchants and traders, Manufacturers, Professional men= Inhabitants of the town. -Yeomen: small tenant farmers, small landholders, some big landholders from the southeast (they had proximity to the continent) Political Field Divine hereditary right of the Monarch For the Royal Powers and Prerogatives Royal Absolutism Constitutional Monarchy Parliamentary participation in Government and the affairs of the state Freedom of Speech Parliamentary over taxation Checks/limits to the power of the King Monarch’s dependence on Parliament. Economic Field Mercantilism (in home industry and international trade) Free trade (international) without state restrictions. Laissez faire (home industry) already achieved after civil war. Religious Field -Conservative: high churchmen -Church of England -Privileges and Prerogatives of the -Liberal: low churchmen -Toleration -Freedom of Worship 45 -Church of England -Freedom of Conscience -Religious Equality Legal Field -Supremacy of the Monarch -Monarchy: highest institution -Supremacy of the law -Individual’s freedom and liberties -Right of the individual to be protected by law Foreign Affairs -They were for peace -Against war because war meant taxation. Taxes imposed on the big landholders. They opposed war because it affected their economic interests -They were for war -War meant the possibility of acquiring new territories and new colonies for the benefit of the merchants and traders. -They were for the expansion of the market Result of the election of 1679 Triumph of the Whigs: Parliament was made up by a majority of Whigs -Liberal aim achieved: Supremacy of the law -Passed: Habeas Corpus Act (1679) → a guarantee that the government will not keep political opponents in prison without a public trial. -Ashley wanted to prevent the Duke of York (James II) from becoming King on the basis that he was Catholic, thus he passed: First Exclusion Bill (1679) → the claim for the throne was to the Duke of York’s daughter, Mary, who was married to the Prince of Orange. Second Exclusion Bill (1681) → the crown should pass to the Duke of Monmouth (Protestant) an illegitimate son of King Charles II. Neither of these bills were passed since the King dissolved Parliament before they were put into effect. 11. Refer to the most important landmarks that led to the achievement of Religious Toleration.  The first attempt at religious toleration in the XVII century was during the Civil War, Cromwellian Interregnum. There was a certain degree of religious toleration, since freedom of worship was weak, but it was a beginning. During that time, (providing they didn’t interfere with the ruling of the country):  All protestant groups enjoy the same privileges in government and in religion.  Anglicanism: not allowed to use the Book of Common Prayer, but some Anglican service and feasts were permitted: priests were allowed to keep their benefices (money).  Jews: allowed to return to England.  Catholics: seldom persecuted.  During the Restoration of the Monarchy there was another document that attempted at religious toleration. It was the “Declaration of Breda”:  Pardon for all who had fought against the late King Charles I, or supported the republican governments (Commonwealth and Protectorate), except those considered guilty (those signing the death warrant).  The King would rely on the assistance and advice of a freely-elected Parliament.  Lands and houses bought under the republican governments should not be confiscated.  No man shall be disquieted or called in question for differences of religion. (Toleration).  In times of Charles II, after the Triple Alliance is formed, Charles signed a secret treaty with France, the “Treaty of Dover” (1670). Through this treaty, among other things, he promised to grant freedom of worship to Catholics. There was also a secret clause, by which he stated he would declare himself openly as Catholic as soon as circumstances allow him to do so and in return he would receive a regular subsidy from France. Two years later, in 1672, Charles issued the “Declaration of Indulgence” in order to grant freedom of worship to Protestant dissenters and Catholics. But it failed because the non-conformists refused to share freedom of worship with Catholics, due to the strong feeling of anti-Catholicism of the period. This meant that Charles failed to fulfill his compromise to France.  Another landmark is the elections that took place in 1679, in which the Whig Party won by an overwhelming majority. It is important because they dominated Parliament all through the 18 th century, and they fought for religious toleration. 46  In the years 1679 and 1681, two Exclusions Bill were passed by Parliament. The first one excluded the Duke of York (Charles’ brother) from the succession to the throne., because he was a Catholic, and stated that the successor should be Mary, his daughter, married to William of Orange, they were Protestant. It was not accepted. The second proposed an illegitimate son of Charles II to the throne also because of the advantage that he was Protestant. It was not accepted either. When Charles dies in 1685 he declares himself openly a Catholic at his deathbed.  Charles was succeeded by James II (Duke of York) who promised not to introduce innovations in the Church of England. However he disappointed his subjects because he started to make mistakes: he began to appoint Catholics in positions in government, he dismissed members of the council just because they were Protestant. He also passed two “Declarations of Indulgence” in 1687 and 1688. Both failed for the same reason as in the previous case. The monarch was openly showing catholic intentions. He married a Catholic Queen. In 1788 James Edward was born, which was the immediate cause of the Glorious Revolution. Whigs and Tories joined and decided to send a letter inviting Mary and William to become English Queen and King in order to save England from despotism. James II was dismissed from the throne and the Glorious Revolution started. William was Protestant but he supported a spirit of toleration. He had two aims: granting freedom of worship and inducing Parliament to repeal the Corporation Act and the Test Act, but he failed in the last one. In 1689 he passed the “Toleration Act” which allowed freedom of worship to all dissenters, but they were excluded from all official positions (there was no religious equality). (-religious equality was only achieved in 1828 when both the Corporation and Test Acts were repealed, and in 1829 through the “Relief Act”, Catholics were allowed to occupy positions in government-) 13. Refer to the Glorious Revolution. Immediate causes. Why was it called “glorious”? Its significance in the economic, political, legal and religious fields. If Charles II died childless he had to be succeeded by his brother the Duke of York who was a Catholic. So Parliament (the Whig Party) decided to pass two “Exclusion Bills” in the years 1679 and 1681. The first one excluded the Duke of York from the succession to the throne, because he was a Catholic, and stated that the successor should be Mary, his daughter, married to William of Orange, they were Protestant. It was not accepted. The second proposed an illegitimate son of Charles II to the throne also because of the advantage that he was Protestant. It was not accepted either. Ashley and many Whigs were forced to leave the country to Holland. And the Parliament was called “Tory Parliament” (because the majority were Tories). When Charles dies in 1685 he declares himself openly a Catholic at his deathbed. He was succeeded by James II (Duke of York) who promised not to introduce innovations in the Church of England and to respect the laws of the nation. The Tory Parliament trusted him and granted him the right to keep a standing army and a regular revenue for life. However he disappointed his subjects because he started to make mistakes: he didn’t respect the laws of the country; he began to appoint Catholics in positions in government and in the army (disregarded the Corporation Act); he dismissed members of the council just because they were Protestant (rejected the Test Act). In Oxford University, James appointed Catholics as heads of the Colleges (overlooked the Five Mile Act). He also passed two “Declarations of Indulgence” (gave freedom of worship to everybody) in 1687 and 1688. Both failed for the same reason as in the previous case. The monarch was openly showing Catholic intentions. He married a Catholic Queen. In 1788 James Edward was born, which was the immediate cause of the Glorious Revolution (the idea of the Catholic son of the monarch becoming king). Whigs and Tories joined and decided to send a letter inviting Mary and William to become English Queen and King in order to save England from despotism. James II was removed from the throne and the Glorious Revolution started. The Glorious revolution was an agreement between Tories and Whigs. It was not a bloody revolution and it meant the triumph of liberal ideas: the setting up of a Constitutional Monarchy. The Glorious Revolution, also called “Bloodless Revolution”, lead to the establishment of the Constitutional Monarchy. Causes:  Fears for the constitutional powers of Parliament threatened by the unconstitutional rule of James II.  Fears for the Protestantism of the Church of England.  Two declarations of Indulgence  The birth of a son to the King (threat of a Catholic successor to the throne: immediate cause). The monarch fled to France, and a “Declaration of Right” was passed in 1689. William and Mary were the new sovereigns. The declaration stated the conditions: the new sovereigns were not to repeat the malpractices of 47 Petition of Rights Eliot’s Resolution John Hampdem (2º step towards the Supremacy of the Law) Long Parliament Grand Remonstrance Cromwelliam Interregnum Charles II Restoration of Monarchy Declaration of Breda Restoration of Parliament Charles II: foreign affairs Treaty of Dover: beginning of political parties: court party vs. country party James II The Glorious Revolution Declaration of Rights Bill of Rights: achievement of the Constitutional Monarchy. William III Beginning of the Modern Cabinet (Constitutional Monarchy: system of government in which there’s a monarch but the supreme power is in the hands of elected members). Attempts at achieving a Constitutional Monarchy started early in the history of England, but it was only achieved with the Glorious Revolution. There were many important landmarks during the XVII century. For example, in 1629 the “Elliot’s Resolution was presented. It stated that whoever tries to introduce innovations in the Protestant Church, whoever levies taxes without the consent of Parliament and whoever pays those taxes was to be considered an enemy of the nation. Immediately after Elliot read the Resolution the monarch, Charles I dissolved Parliament, Elliot was imprisoned and Parliament was not to be summoned again until 1640. That was the beginning of the “Eleven years Tyranny”. Nevertheless, it was an attempt of Parliament to put some checks on the monarch’s power. After the “Eleven Years Tyranny”, when the Long Parliament was summoned in 1640, they took a number of measures:  Parliament could not be dissolved except with its own consent.  All the malpractices that the monarch had resorted to were unlawful.  Parliament dissolved all law courts that were under personal control of the monarch.  Triennial Act : elections should be summoned every three years. One of the most important landmarks leading to the achievement of the Constitutional Monarchy was the Civil War, in which the political aims were for Parliament to limit the power of the monarch and to represent the law and the people. After Charles I was beheaded, two institutions disappeared: Monarchy and the House of Lords. During the Cromwellian Interregnum England was ruled without a monarch and without Parliament. There were two republican experiments carried out by Cromwell: Commonwealth (1649-1653) and Protectorate (1653- 1660); but both resulted in a failure. Commonwealth:  The Council of State was appointed to carry out the executive power.  The House of Commons ruled the country: Rump Parliament. But very soon it proved to be ineffective and Cromwell decides to abolish the House of Commons too. Protectorate:  Cromwell declared himself Lord Protector  He didn’t dismiss the Council of State but he took the decisions alone. England was being ruled by an Oligarchy. (Oligarchy: privileged group that dominates a country). During the Restoration period there were some documents presented by Parliament whose aim was to check the monarch’s powers and to secure Parliament’s position in government. “ Declaration of Breda” (1660). Clauses:  Pardon for all who had fought against the late King Charles I, or supported the republican governments (Commonwealth and Protectorate), except those considered guilty (those signing the death warrant).  The King would rely on the assistance and advice of a freely elected Parliament.  Lands and houses bought under the republican governments should not be confiscated.  No man shall be disquieted or called in question for differences of religion. (Toleration). “Cavalier Parliament” (1660-1679). 50  Act: “It is high treason even to say that it may be lawful to rebel against the monarch”.  Parliament should be freely elected and frequent in its meetings.  Parliament limited regular (for life) revenue of the monarch by about half the cost of government, so that the king should always be dependent on parliamentary rights.  Parliament did not allow the monarch to keep up a standing army (since it could be used against the people instead of against foreign enemies). During the reign of James II, Whigs and Tories united and decided to send a letter inviting Mary and William to become English Queen and King to save England from despotism. James II was removed from the throne and the Glorious Revolution started. The Glorious Revolution, also called “Bloodless Revolution”, lead to the establishment of the Constitutional Monarchy. The monarch fled to France, and a “Declaration of Right” was passed in 1689. William and Mary were the new sovereigns. The declaration stated the conditions: the new sovereigns were not to repeat the malpractices of previous monarchs: disregarding the laws of the country. The Declaration of Right was incorporated into the “Bill of Rights” (1689) which laid down the foundations of the Constitutional Monarchy:  Abandonment of the Divine Hereditary Right of Monarchs (William)  Preservation of the hereditary succession (Mary)  Establishment of the Constitutional Monarchy. The Bill of Rights stated clearly the checks placed upon the monarchs. Their power was reduced. Parliament was now the supreme power, and the monarchs depended on its advice. The document condemned the reign of James II, denounced his malpractices and attacked him for attempting to subvert the Protestant religion and the fundamental laws of the nation.  It’s illegal to suspend the laws of the nation  It’s illegal to levy taxes without the consent of Parliament.  It’s illegal to raise a standing army in times of peace.  Parliament should be freely elected, frequent in its meetings and was to enjoy freedom of speech.  Roman Catholics were excluded from the Crown: future Kings must hold communion with the Church of England. Through the Bill of Rights and its subsequent Acts, Parliament became a ruling assembly because it checked the monarch’s powers. 16. Refer to the Age of Experimentation and its antecedents: Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo. Bacon, Newton and the Royal Society. Scientists questioned deep-rooted beliefs, and when it was proved that the Earth was not the center of the universe people became aware that they were only a small dot in an immense system. They felt insignificant but they also felt proud because man had been able to reach those conclusions. The tension produced by these two feelings characterizes the XVII century. Contributions Rise of Science Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) Polish Astronomer. On the revolution of celestial spheres Heliocentric theory of the solar system (Sun is the centre) Described heavenly motions as circular, eternal and uniform Galileo Galilei (1564-1641) Italian Philosopher, mathematician, astronomer Improvement of the telescope First important empirical observation supporting the heliocentric theory. Formulation of circular inertia The law of falling bodies and parabolic trajectories Law of motion Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) German astronomer Three laws of planetary emotion and he described the orbits of the planets as ellipses. It was Kepler’s notion of the physical astronomy that highly influenced Newton. (Celestial harmonies that reflected God’s design for the future). Age of Experiment Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Novum Organum Systematization of the scientific procedure to acquire knowledge of 51 nature Fostered men to reach truth in natural science Father of the inductive method. To give man the command over nature. Inspired the foundation of the Royal Society. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Physicist and mathematician. In mechanics: his three laws of motion, the basic principles of modern Physics, resulted in the formulation of the law of universal Gravitation In optics: discovered the composition of white light. In mathematics: the discovery of infinitesimal calculus. Became president of the Royal Society He stated that it was not necessary to resort to God as a cause of movement, however he didn’t refuse the idea of the existence of God. He was a deist. (Deism: approach to religion which puts emphasis on religion and moral) Royal Society 1660 The aim of the Royal Society was the encouragement of experimentation and research in maths, psychology, philosophy, physics, etc. It grouped people belonging to different fields. The common theme among the scientists who began the Society was acquiring knowledge by experimental investigation. Scientific research in England coincides with the period of the Restoration. The impact of the rise of science on society was very strong because in that time people started to question things and to have a critical attitude. The scientists proved that what they had believed was not true. 17. Refer to the growth of the Empire in what is now North America and to the main principles of the Old Colonial System (different colonies, characteristics of the settlements, relationship between the colonies and the mother country). The defeat of the Spanish Armada convinced the English that the Spanish were no longer invincible. This cleared the way for the English colonization of the Americas. The causes of migration were religious, economic and legal. Settlers were looking for freedom of worship.  In times of James I, Captain Smith founded the VIRGINIA COLONIES (South, the beginning of the southern colonies) in 1607. It was the first settlement. The settlers were the sons of landholders, squires. They sought economic status, and though they didn’t find gold, they found tobacco.  MARYLAND (North) was, in 1634, the first colony granted to an individual: Lord Baltimore. He was a Catholic and established the colony as a refuge for English Catholics who were persecuted at home.  PLYMOUTH was settled in 1620 by Pilgrims that aimed at Christian Commonwealth. They were the most extreme Puritans who had severed all ties with the Church of England and were persecuted by James I and the Anglicans.  MASSACHUSETTS BAY was settled by Puritans persecuted by Laud.  NEW NETHERLAND – NEW YORK was founded by the Dutch but in 1664 it was taken by force by James II (Duke of York).  GEORGIA: imprisoned English debtors were transported there to work the land (1732) In the 17th and 18th centuries, the crown exercised control over its colonies chiefly in the areas of trade and shipping. In accordance with the mercantilist philosophy of the time, the colonies were regarded as a source of necessary raw materials for England and were granted monopolies for their products, such as tobacco and sugar in the British government. In return, they were expected to conduct all their trade by means of English ships and to serve as markets for British manufactured goods. (Navigation Act of 1651). Slave trade acquired a peculiar importance to Britain’s colonial economy in the Americas. The Colonies performed a twofold purpose:  They constituted a place for dissidents and criminals.  They provided England with raw material at very low prices and a market for English manufactured products. 52 Large scale production - Amalgamation of different national stocks. Heritage: common language: English representative forms of government respect for civil rights: freedom of speech, press, etc religious toleration - relative racial toleration: mingled races - individual enterprise spirit - idea of democracy Charles I and James I Where? When ? Who? Why? Religion Jamestow n (Virginia. 1st permanen t settlemen t) 1607 Merchan ts and traders settled the first colony following Raleigh’s ideas. English Colonies in the New World would prove to be a source of immediate commercial gain in the form of free or inexpensive land. The settlement was nearly a failure, but Captain Smith saved it with the discovery of tobacco. The colony initiated the cultivation of tobacco, established the first representative government on the continent (1619) and brought the first American slaves to the colony Anglicanism: Church of England. (This colony built the 1st Anglican church in America) Plantation of Ulster (in Northern Ireland) 1608- 1611 James I decided to send people from Scotland to settle on this lands. Northern Ireland was confiscated as a result of a rebellion during the last years of Elizabeth. Presbyterianism New England (in Massachu setts) Colonies that branched off New England: New Hampshir e, Massachu setts, 1620 Founded by the Pilgrim Fathers They fled from the British Isle on the Mayflower in times of the Cromwellian Interregnum Puritanism 55 Connectic ut, Rhode Island. Maryland (originally part of Virginia) 1632 Catholics who where excluded from other colonies Granted to Lord Baltimore as a separate colony where Catholics could settle. Catholicism (this colony granted religious equality) 56 Charles II and James II Carolina 166 3 Cotton growing. Afterwards it was divided into North and South Carolina New York, New Jersey, Delaware 166 9 Cosmopolitan trading centre. Acquired from Dutch after the 2º War with the Dutch Pennsylvania 168 0 Its first principles were religious toleration and fair plays towards the Indians. Georgia 173 2 Jamaica 165 5 It was raid by the English. It had been previously in control of Spain. It was illegally annexed to Britain by Charles II in 1670. Bermuda 161 7 Settlement of Puritans (and Anglicans after the Civil War) because of tobacco and sugar which where sources of wealth. Cromwell performed a conscious attempt of colonization because he was aware of the benefits. 57  Cottagers and squatters lost their rights of wastelands and woodlands.  Exodus of population from rural to urban areas (where the textile industries were growing).  Increase of the cheap labour force due to the large number of workers.  Emergence of slums, lack of accommodation for people coming from the countryside.  Alteration of the distribution of population. Before the Industrial Revolution, the southern areas where the most populated because most of the population engaged in agriculture depended on the fertile soil for their livelihood. After the industrial revolution, the midlands and the north were most populated because factories were placed near coalmines.  The rich became richer. The big landholders, through enclosures, consolidated economically and became powerful.  The English peasantry was destroyed. 3. What was the Industrial Revolution? What were the factors that made this revolution possible? -England was the first country to become industrialized. -It was not an event; it’s the result of all the changes going on since the emergence of the Capitalist System. -England went form an agricultural nation to a manufacturing workshop Revolution: sudden, radical, sharp change. Industrial Revolution:  “Series of economic and social changes that England experienced between the second half of the XVIII century and the beginnings of the XIX century”.  “Technological and industrial progress that England experienced between the second half of the XVIII century and the beginnings of the XIX century, characterized by the introduction of machinery and the emergence of factories”.  “It was an economic process that implied the introduction of new machinery to increase production to satisfy a large home population and foster market abroad.”  “Large-scale production” The Industrial Revolution was divided into two stages: * 1760-1830: period characterized by improvement in transport, canal construction. Increase in population, introduction of machinery. * 1830-1850: period characterized by emergence of railways, increase in production, industrial outcome. The Industrial Revolution meant: Application of new methods to run machinery (steam), division of labour, increase in population (people go from the countryside to urban populations), economic expansion, climax of England as the leading and most powerful country in the world, etc. But it also meant a bad period for the working classes:  Exploitation of children  Unsanitary, unsecured and unhealthy working conditions  Long hours  Bad clothing and housing So philosophers began to question: if England is a prosperous country why is it that some people (working classes) are not participating in the prosperity of the country? Causes:  The immediate cause of the Industrial Revolution was growth in population. Since the times of the Glorious Revolution England experienced a period of relative peace, it was not involved in many wars. 60  Moreover life expectation was longer. Scientific revolution meant important advances in the fields of medicine, biology and chemistry. Since there were more people, there were more needs to satisfy at home and in the colonies.  The domestic system was no longer profitable and collapsed. There was the need of application of machinery and mechanical inventions. Emergence of the factory system. Scale production was introduced to satisfy the growing population’s need.  England counted with large natural resources of coal and iron and with colonies that provided raw material and a market for manufactured products and surplus production.  The Agrarian Revolution was another cause of the Industrial Revolution since it increased labour force in the cities.  England was the first country to become industrialized because the Capitalist System had already consolidated and the banking and credit systems had already developed (Bank of England, William III). Capital played and important role (until now agriculture was the main economic activity). This lead to the presence of enterprising and a spirit of innovation (emergence of entrepreneur). Bourgeoisie was consolidated; it was an educated class with technical knowledge and qualities. They were investing in building and were already accustomed to paying wages and to working with credit and banking. They were prepared for the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution took place in: Textile Industry: Up to the XVIII century the most important industry was woollen. But in XVIII there were changes in the methods of production. There was an introduction and application of new mechanical devices to accelerate the processes of production. The machinery was mainly introduced to accelerate the processes of spinning and weaving (Kay’s Flying Shuttle, Wyatt and Paul’s Spinning Roller”, Hargreave’s Spinning Jenny, Compton’s Mule, Cartwright’s Power Loom, Arkwright Waterframe. Areas with water were necessary to settle factories, thus textile factories were settled in the south bringing about redistribution of labours. Coal and Iron Industry: There were two important developments: the introduction of new driving forces to make machinery work and the introduction of new materials to build machines. The first industries were set up in the SE because of the navigable rivers since water was the main source to drive machinery. Later there was an exodus of population form the South to the North since coal was used to produce steam. The new material introduced to build machines was iron since wood didn’t resist the steam power. The iron and coal industries implied a redistribution of industries and population, a shift to midlands and the north, because iron industries settled near coalmines. Transport Industry: Up to the XVIII century roads were from Roman times, so they had to be improved because they were too old to transport iron and raw material or finished products. Canal construction was also carried out since navigable rivers were located only in the SE so artificial water gates were built to transport iron and raw material or finished products for commercial purposes. Canal and road construction was carried out by private initiative because neither the central government nor the local authorities assumed the responsibility (this system marks the beginning of “Private Enterprises”. These private companies were called Turnpike trusts: they were in charge of the building and the maintenance of the roads and they were financed by taxes (users were levied tolls). In the second stage of the Industrial Revolution there was a greatest growth in the development of railways (1830-1890). They were created to transport both the raw material and manufactured goods. Railways encouraged the development of other industries: engineering industries, ship industries and iron industries. Engineering and Shipping Industries: Ports had to be improved. 4. Discuss the consequences of the Industrial Revolution in the economic and social fields. How did the IR affect the economic and social structure of England? CONSEQUENCES: ECONOMIC:  England became an industrial country (ceased to be an agricultural country): Now industry and overseas commerce became the main pillars of the English economy and agriculture came to occupy a second position since the availability of fertile soil declined with the net of roads and railways. 61  Increase in production and national wealth  New industries: chemical and metallurgic industries.  Achievement of free trade in international market  The last of the liberal aims was achieved in 1846 with the repeal of the Corn Laws 9. It was a class struggle between the landed aristocracy and the new industrialists and manufacturers. The aristocracy protected the land and the middle class wanted the repeal of the Corn Laws.  In 1849, the Navigation Acts were revoked.  Most of the English population was now engaged in industrial activities  England was the first large-scale producer so there was a need to acquire more markets  England’s economic policies towards the acquisition of new overseas markets for English manufactured goods in exchange for food and raw materials.  England stopped being a self-sufficing country: it exported the surplus production.  Consolidation of laissez-faire (no control and freedom form the central government)  Consolidation of Capital: Industrial Capital (money invested in building industries, buying material, buying machinery, paying wages, improving methods of production).  Development of Factory System replacing Domestic System. Introduction of mass production  Laissez faire in working conditions. There was no state control at all. This lead to abuses on the part of the capitalists (exploitation of children, bad schooling, bad working conditions, long hours, etc.). Government felt that they should intervene in order to stop these abuses. Their aim was to regulate working hours and conditions. SOCIAL: Emergence of 2 urban social classes Transformation of the position of both capitalists and craftsmen artisans:  Craftsmen: (proletarian) lost independence completely. Their position deteriorated. They were dependent on capitalists for place, money, etc.  Industrialists: consolidated their position: they possessed capital, paid wages, and owned factories and machinery.  Disappearance of Yeomen Industrialists Proletarian:  Most powerful group  Engineers  Inventors  Speculators  Money lenders  Owners  Capitalists  Working class, wage earning class  No capital, no property  Depended completely upon wages  Completely dependent upon industrialists  Class conscious: aware of their low position Beginning of Trade Unions Wage earners became a class-conscious working class. They were aware of their identity as a group within society. Trade unions were fostered since workers did no longer work in their homes, but all together in the same place. Thus, agreement on conditions grew necessary. Population Mobility After the Agrarian Revolution, people moved to the South to work in textile industries. After the Industrial Revolution, people moved to the north and midlands working in coal and iron industries near coalmines. Education Before the Industrial Revolution, the poor did not have access to education. Studying became a necessity later on, but parents wanted their children to work instead of studying. 9 Corn Laws: The Corn Laws were tariffs on imported grain during the early to mid-1800s designed to keep grain prices high to favour producers in Great Britain. The laws did indeed raise food prices and became the focus of opposition from urban groups who had far less political power than rural Britain. 62 1867 Reform Act: The working classes of urban areas got the right to vote. The electorate almost doubled. There was also a redistribution of seats in Parliament. 1884 Reform Act: The workers of the rural areas got the right to vote. 1833: FACTORY ACTS: Reduction of working hours. Government forbade children under 9 to work and it also prohibited under-13-year olds to work more than eight hours. This act implied the appointment of INSPECTORS to control that these rights were carried out. [Beginnings of bureaucracy: Administration of the law by paid officials]. 1878 FACTORY ACTS: it brought together all the previous acts into one. It forbade night-work for children. It was applied to all industries and workshops. It forced owners to fence machines so as to reduce danger in mines. 1833: FIRST GOVERNMENT GRANT FOR EDUCATION: Elementary education was not in the hands of the State in those days. It was in charge of Charity Schools run by the Anglican Church and Non-conforming groups. Government granted money to voluntary associations for the building of new schools. In 1939 governmental control over education increased, thus IINSPECTORS were sent to monitor the correct expenditure of money. 1839: More grants were given to schools and Inspectors were appointed to check the improvements 1861: More grants given. System of payment by result: biggest grants to schools that have the best students (best students got grants for their studies) 1870: Foster’s Education Act: it provided the foundation for a national and free system of education. Elementary schools at public expense. 1880: Attendance made compulsory for children under the age of 12 1891: Elementary education made free 1899: A board of education was established and education became an independent part of government. (Before this board, all issues related to education were in charge of a governmental body) 8. Refer to the economic policies that prevailed in the field of the Home Industry in the XVI, XVII, XVIII, and XIX centuries. State intervention in home industry because of deploring working conditions. Laissez faire proved to be inefficient. This move from laissez faire to state intervention was reflected on FACTORY ACTS: * Improvement of working conditions for women and children. * (end XIXth C & beg XXth C) Improvement on wages. This state intervention was not Mercantilism because it did not imply protectionism, it only meant regulation. For three centuries, starting form the Reformation, England adhered to an economic system known as Mercantilism. The whole structure of this system can be viewed as a planned national economy based on self- sufficiency. By the XVI C, under the Tudors, economic life was organized on national basis; therefore, the central government took over responsibilities formerly entrusted to towns and municipal institutions. A national regime 65 ECONOMIC POLICIESXVIth C TUDORXVIIth C STUARTXVIIIth C HANOVERIANXIXth C VICTORIAN (after Ind. Rev)Home IndustryMercantilism (protectionist)Laissez FaireTriumph of Laissez FaireState Intervention [Mercantilism but not protectionist)International IndustryMercantilism Free trade [1830: Achieved with the repeal of the Corn Laws] replaced a municipal one as the mainspring of economic growth. The unit was no longer the borough but the nation. In the stage of town economy, every borough tried to become self-sufficing and self-dependent. It sought to establish a monopoly of industry over an extensive area, and it imposed trading disabilities in strangers (Gild system). In the stage of national economy, this principle of exclusiveness is still found. The aim was self- sufficiency. The underlying idea was to consolidate the strength of the state by making it independent of other states in the economic sphere. This notion of self-sufficiency doesn’t imply economic isolation, though. The mercantilist idea was that a community should (1) produce its primary necessities – foods, stuffs and manufactured articles to the fullest extent possible; (2) it should possess its own mercantile marine, and (3) it should use foreign commerce to supply deficiencies which couldn´t be supplied at home, in return, for the export of its own surplus products. Thus mercantilism was distinguished by a systematic application of a protectionist policy to all spheres of national economy, in order to develop native sources of production, and in the conscious pursuit of the ideal of self-sufficiency. In the sphere of industry, the aim of the mercantilist state was to bring capitalism under control. Therefore, the industrial entrepreneur was subjected to restrictions. Accordingly, the real kernel of the mercantilist system lay in the protection of agriculture, industry and navigation. The legal structure of mercantilism rested upon three pillars: the protection of industry, the Corn Laws and the Navigation Acts. The economic intervention of the state included, not only matters affecting wages, employment and technical training, but also the prescriptions of technical manufacture, and the standard of quality dimensions. Sometimes, prices were fixed by public authority, especially, the prices of bread and coal, and sometimes, commodities such as cloth, silk, ale, wine and tea. One of the most resented restrictions on the capitalist was the Patent of Monopolies through which the state gave the control of an industry to a group of individuals or an individual acting in a corporate capacity. The patents were designed to free England from its dependence upon other countries in several branches of industry and, at the same time, to foster infant industries and encourage English manufacturers by prohibiting imports, by granting exclusive privileges from individuals or companies to single producers. The growth of individualism had a decisive influence upon the economic structure of the country. The capitalists claimed a free hand in the management of their business. The pressure they exerted brought, as a consequence, the liberation of industry from state control in the XVII C. This development emancipated the manufacturing class. The controversy that emerged between Parliament and the Crown was that the latter stood for the preservation of the old order in the economic field as well as in the political and religious fields. Accordingly, it tried to define the activities of the capitalist class. To pursuit this end, the crown reinforced those usages by statutory laws like the sell of monopolies, Tonnage and Poundage, and ship money. The position taken up by the crown resulted in the alienation of the middle classes. The development of capitalism and the stimulus of expanding trade had fostered the growing individualism of the middle class. So the issues at stake in the Civil War were not only those of the Crown vs. Parliament, and of the established Church vs. Non-conformity, but also the duel between the monarchy seeking to preserve the traditional framework of society, and an aggressive and progressive middle class bent in establishing its ascendancy. The reaction against constitutional authority showed up not only in the religious field, but extended inevitably to the economic field and encouraged a critical attitude towards the state interference. The economic significance of the Civil War lies in the relaxation of state control. The new political system favoured economic emancipation, since the monarchy couldn’t exercise a restraining influence on the people any longer. Thus the collapse of the authoritarian regime proved to be the turning point in the evolution of capitalism in England. The constitutional order established at the Restoration and consolidated by the Glorious Revolution of 1688 created a framework within which capitalist society could work out its way, unrestricted by the control of the crown. The new policy was definitely oriented towards laissez-faire. Parliament came under the direct influence of a capitalist regime which proceeded to demand its liberation from the restrictions laid upon it by the legislature. Accordingly, the old industrial code was replaced by a new economic order, pursued by a spirit of individualism which insisted on a complete freedom of action. Since the state couldn’t determine the terms of employment, the enterprises could make their own contracts, regarding wages, length of service, quality and supply of labour and the nature of products. The triumph of laissez-faire in home industry came in the XVIII C. The introduction of machinery and the growth of the factory system brought about a change in the national approach to economic problems. The state chose not to interfere in the transition between the old to the new order. The situation was a difficult one: the greatest social problems weren’t new, they had existed before the Industrial Revolution, before the introduction 66 of machinery and the new inventions, but they had now accentuated; the dogmas of laissez-faire had a strong grip over the rulers’ minds, the doctrine of non-intervention couldn’t de discarded overnight. But the force of circumstances proved too strong for the opponents of the factory reform. The need for extensive readjustment compelled the government to intervene once more in economic affairs. The reaction in the XIX C. against laissez- faire was, unquestionably, one of the most significant consequences of the Industrial Revolution. The causes for the new attitude of the state towards social problems were economic as well as humanitarian. The economic argument against laissez-faire was based on the recognition of the fact that the national income depended on labour, and whatever increased the efficiency of labour ultimately increased the national wealth. Factory legislation was weak. There wasn’t any attempt to visualize the problem of child and women excessive labour, until the era of Factory Reform came. Since 1802, step by step, factory labour started to be regulated. Factory inspectors were later on appointed. However, other evils, such as the employment of children and women underground, were aggravated. The next step was the inclusion of the non-textile factories and workshops, not regulated yet, and in which many abuses and evil practices prevailed. Factory legislation included not only the shortening of the working day but also the reinforcement of sanitary previsions, or cautions against disease. Towards the end of the XIX C, the state imposed on employers a national minimum wage as well as the maximum amount of hours of work. 9. Refer to the achievement of free trade in the XIX century. The growth of individualism played a decisive role in the domain of commerce and its triumph set free the mercantile class. The trend of commercial policy was from mercantilism to free trade. The free trade movement replaced the doctrine of economic nationalism in which each country pursued the aim of self-sufficiency, by the doctrine of the internal division of labour in which each country devoted itself to its products for which it was best suited and exchanged its surplus for products of other nations. In the XVI C international trade grew considerably and began to assume world-wide character. The expansion of commerce was stimulated by (1) the discovery of America and new sea routes to India and (2) the sense of nationalism and the characteristics of the industries. At the beginning of the XIX c., four branches of the mercantilist theory still survived:  Protection of native manufacturers by tariffs or absolute prohibitions: the export of wool, for example, was forbidden in order that clothiers had an abundant supply of raw material at low prices and that they had the monopoly of the home market  The protection of shipping by navigation laws: laws that stated that exports and imports could only be carried out in English ships with ¾ of the crew English.  The protection of agriculture by Corn Laws: Laws that prohibited the import of corn, or when this was necessary they set high fees on imported corn.  The old colonial system which treated the colonies as subservient to the mother country and controlled their trade. During the 1820s, the inefficient and out of date restrictions and regulations and the legal and political system of the country paved the way for the free trade movement (by Cobden and Bright, Peel and Gladstone). London merchants presented a petition to Parliament addressing the principles of free trade and demanding the abolition of all restrictions which were imposed on trading activities. The free trade movement ended as a doctrinaire force making for complete freedom of trade, backed by a whole philosophy of commercial liberalism and a new popular faith in the virtues of free competitive enterprise. Commercial policy was linked with two political considerations: the need to raise taxation in conditions where the land tax was a chief alternative source of revenue and income tax was a wartime novelty; and the urge to protect British shipping interests so that in case of war the British Navy should be strong. The Navigation Laws (1651) served the double purpose of protecting British Shipping and restricting the expansion of Britain’s chief naval rivals. The trend of the reforms aimed at promoting national wealth by untrammelled private enterprise, and to leave considerations of national defence and of taxation to the direct action of the government, through naval building and the imposition of income tax and other direct taxes. The first moves were to simplify and diminish import duties (sugar, timber, tea, coffee, beer, wine, etc.). In 1842, Peel (PM) revived income tax and it soon became the chief source of inland revenue. 67  1773, Tea Act: it gave a monopoly on tea sales to the East India Company. In other words, American colonists could buy no tea unless it came from that company. Why? Well, the East Indian Company wasn't doing so well, and the British wanted to give it some more business. The Tea Act lowered the price on this East India tea so much that it was way below tea from other suppliers. But the American colonists saw this law as yet another means of "taxation without representation" because it meant that they couldn't buy tea from anyone else (including other colonial merchants) without spending a lot more money. Their response was to refuse to unload the tea from the ships. This was the situation in Boston that led to the Boston Tea Party.  1773 Boston Tea Party: the colonies decided to throw all the tea to the sea.  1774, The Coercive Acts: Boston port was closed until they paid for the damage. The Quartering Acts were strengthened. Right of self-government in Massachusetts was suspended. The Coercive Acts led to first Continental Congress in 1774 which was the first time the colonies gathered to rebel against Britain.  1774, First Continental Congress: it was the first time they legitimated their demands. They endorsed the radical Suffolk Resolves: resolutions will declare the intolerable acts null and void, urged Massachusetts to arm for defence and call for economic sanctions against British colonies.  1774, Declaration of American Rights: o It conceded Parliament’s right to regulate commerce and those matters which were strictly imperial affairs. o Denied Parliament’s authority with respect to colonial affairs. o It proclaimed the right of each assembly to determine the need of troops within its own province.  Continental Association of 1774 , which recommended that every county, town and city form committees to enforce a boycott on all British goods.  1775, Revolutionary War in Massachusetts. The thirteen colonies rebelled against Britain due to the imposition of taxes.  1775, the delegates of the Continental congress issued two major documents: an appeal to the king known as the Olive Branch Petition and a declaration of the causes and necessities of taking up arms. The Olive Branch Petition written by Dickinson professed loyalty to George III and begged him to restrain further hostility pending a reconciliation. It rejected independence but affirmed the colonies purpose to fight for their rights rather than submit to slavery.  George III ordered the Army at Boston to regard the colonies as open and avowed enemies. The next day he issued the Proclamation of rebellion.  In 1775, Parliament declared the colonies closed to all commerce.  1776, Paine Pamphlet “Common sense”: king George III bore the responsibility for the malevolence against the colony. Americans should consult their own interests, abandon George III, and declare their Independence.  1776, 4th July, the Independence was declared. The Continental Congress adopted Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence, which was a restatement of John Locke’s theory of government. Government derived its power from the consent of the people. They were entitled to alter or abolish government which denied their unalienable right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. The representatives of the United States of America, therefore, declared the 13 united colonies to be free and independent states. It had its roots in Locke’s philosophy on the Social Contract, which was the agreement between the government and the people.  The conflict thus began as a civil war within the British Empire over colonial affairs, but, with America being joined by France in 1778, Spain 1779, and the Netherlands in 1780, it became an international war. When armed conflict began, Americans claimed that they sought only their rights within the British Empire. The War of Independence proceeded and Britain undertook to assert its sovereignty by means of large armed forces. The Americans increasingly came to believe that they must secure their rights outside the Empire. The losses and restrictions that came from the war widened the breach between the colonies and the mother country; moreover, it was necessary to assert independence in order to secure as much French aid as possible (The French had been secretly furnishing financial and material aid to the Americans since 1776 and in 1778, they declared war on Britain). Thereafter, land action in America died out, though war continued on the high seas. After 1780, the war at sea was fought chiefly among Britain and America’s European allies. After 1789 Spain and the Netherlands were able to control much of the water around the British Isles. The British feared a planned invasion, but storm, sickness among the Allied crew, and changes of plans terminated the threat.  The Treaty of Paris (1783) ended the U.S. War of Independence. Great Britain recognised the independence of the United States as a country and they set the boundaries, including the Mississippi River on the West. Britain retained Canada but ceded Florida to Spain. Other provisions called for payment of U.S. private debts to British citizens, for American access to Newfoundland fisheries, and fair treatment for American colonials loyal to England. 70 Manifest Destiny: they had the divine right and mission to spread and expand and to take with them their culture and values. God had established the chosen people, successful people. It was used to justify the acquisition of new lands and territories. The 1st territory to be annexed was Louisiana which was a French territory and it was sold to the US in 1803. After the acquisition of Louisiana they could reach the west area which was previously occupied by the French, the area of the pacific. The next territory was Texas which was Mexican territory but many Americans lived there. They wanted to be independent from Mexico and they achieved that after a rebellion in 1836 and demanded that the US annexed them. In 1845 Texas was annexed to the US. The US also wanted to acquire California which was also part of Mexico. They asked them to sell it but Mexico didn’t want to, so the US provoked them and moved to the borders which ended up in a war in the border 1846. The American-Mexican war came to an end in 1848 with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo by which Mexico had to sell or give up California and New Mexico. Alaska was bought from Russia in 1867 and Hawaii was bought in 1898.  The New Colonial System By 1815, despite the loss of the 13 American colonies, Britain had a second empire which included Canada and the Caribbean in the Western hemisphere and the Cape of Good Hope, India and Australia. This empire was sustained by and supported by the maritime power of Britain. The operations of the new empire reflected decisive changes in British society. The replacement of mercantile by industrial enterprise as the main source of the national wealth entailed changes to make national and colonial policy more consistent with the new hierarchy of interests. The restrictive trade practices and monopolies privileges that sustained the commercial explosion of the 16th and 17th century built around the slave trade, colonial plantations, and monopolistic trading companies – did not provide the most effective environment for a new empire. In accordance with the mercantilist philosophy of the time, the colonies were regarded as a source of necessary raw materials for England and were granted monopolies for their products, such as tobacco and sugar, in the British market. In return they were expected to conduct all their trade in English ships and to serve as markets for British manufactured goods. The Navigation Act of 1651 and subsequent acts set up a closed economy between Britain and its colonies; all colonial exports had to be shipped on English ships to the British market, and all colonial imports had to come by way of England. This arrangement lasted until the loss of the American colonies and the growth of a free trade movement brought it to an end in the 19th century.  British military and naval power won for Britain two of the most important parts of its empire – Canada and India. The loss of the 13 American colonies in 1776-1783 was conpensated by new settlements in Autralia from 1778 and the growth of Upper Canada (Now Ontario) after the emigration of the loyalists from what had become the United States. British influence extended to the South Pacific, the Far East, the South Atlantic, and the African coast.  The idea of limited self-government for some of Britain´s colonies was first recommended for Canada by Lord Durham in 1839 (Lord Durham´s report and Canada Union Act, 1857). The idea of “responsible government”, whereby some colonies were allowed largely to manage their own affairs under governors appointed by the mother country, spread radiply. Parts of Australia, New Zealand, Natal, and Cape Colony achieved this status by the end of the 19th century. Confederations of colonies in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa obtained such complete control over their affairs that in 1907 they were granted the new status of dominions. Their sovereignty was complete. This select group of nations within the empire, with substantial European populations and long experience of British forms and practices, was often referred to as the British Commonwealth. The British Commonwealth, consisting of the mother country and the sovereign dominions, was recognised by the Statute of Westminster in 1931. 11. Refer to the Canadian Confederation: origin, provinces that joined the Confederation. 1763- Treaty of Paris: France lost its Canadians colonies and they became British. 1763- Royal Proclamation: The borders of Quebec were defined. It was made a British colony. Established that Catholics couldn’t hold office. 1774- Quebec Act: the limits of Quebec were enlarged. Catholics in Quebec could hold official posts. The British would respect the French culture, civil law and Catholicism. 1791- Division of Quebec: Canada is divided in upper (English) and lower (French) Canada. 71 1818- Convention of 1818: settle the borders since the United States was expanding. 49 parallel. 1839- Lord Durham’s Report: proposed the unification of the British North American colonies (Upper and Lower Canada). Give them self-government or responsible government, granting the colonies the possibility to decide on internal affairs but external affairs would remain in the hands of the mother country. 1841- Unification of Lower and Upper Canada influenced by Lord Durham’s Report. 1848- Self-government in the provinces Canadian Confederation was the process by which the federal Dominion of Canada was formed on July 1, 1867. On that day, three British colonies became four provinces of the new dominion. The existing United Province of Canada was divided into the new provinces of Ontario and Quebec, and two other colonies, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, also became provinces of the new Dominion of Canada. The chain of events began when delegates of the coalition government in Canada journeyed in the summer of 1864 to Charlottetown, where a conference was considering the possibility of a union of the Maritime Provinces. The Canadians convinced the Maritimers to put this project aside in favour of discussion of a larger scheme – British North American Union. The next stage in the process was to secure approval by the various provincial legislatures of the scheme. English speaking Canadians seeking a way out of political deadlock and a framework for more effective economic progress were in favour of the project. French Canadians were more divided; many being fearful of a union that would further erode their minority status. Cartier convinced a narrow majority that the confederation would be a barrier against annexation to The United States, which he believed would destroy the Canadian identity. The New Federal Government was to have large powers in financial and economic matters but it would have no authority respecting religion and education. French civil law was to continue in the New Province of Quebec and both French and English would be legal languages in that province as well as in the Federal Parliament. The final stage of the process took place in London. Delegates from Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick revised the Quebec resolutions and were formed into a draft bill. That bill passed through the British Parliament in March 1867 and the British North America Act became operative on July 1 1867. 1867- The Dominion of Canada 1867 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ACT 10 : Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom by which three British colonies in North America -Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Canada - were united as “one Dominion under the name of Canada” under the condition that the other colonies and territories of British North America might be admitted. It also divided the province of Canada into the provinces of Quebec and Ontario and provided them with constitutions.  The British North America Act conferred on the new dominion a constitution “similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom.” The executive government was vested in Queen Victoria and her successors.  Canada would have parliamentary and cabinet government. The legislature was to consist of a Senate, its members appointed for life from the regions of Canada, and a House of Commons elected from the provinces on the principle of representation by population.  The act provided for a union in which the federal government had general and overriding powers, while the provinces had particular and restricted ones.  The act provided no process of amendment. Amendments were made by the imperial Parliament in London at the request of the Parliament of Canada. The Canadian Confederation reached the Pacific Ocean with the admission of British Columbia in 1871. 1870- Addition of Manitoba as the 5th province 1871- Addition of British Columbia 1873- Addition of Prince Edward Isle 1905- Alberta and Saskatchewan 1949- Newfoundland. 10 The act served as Canada's “constitution” until 1982, when it was renamed the Constitution Act, 1867, and became the basis of Canada's Constitution Act of 1982, by which the British Parliament's authority was transferred to the independent Canadian Parliament. 72 -a growing faith in human reason, -a distrust of religious claims of revelation that lead to dogmatism and intolerance, and -an image of God as the rational architect of an ordered world.  The early Deists asserted that superficial differences of ritual and dogma of the world's religions were insignificant and should accordingly be tolerated.  By the turn of the 17th century, however, a number of Deists (Toland, the Earl of Shaftesbury, Tindal, Woolston, and Collins) rejected the elaborate liturgical practices and complex institutional procedures of Roman Catholicism as analogous to ancient pagan superstition.  By the end of the 18th century, in addition to becoming a dominant religious attitude among English, French, and German intellectuals, Deism had crossed the Atlantic to shape the religious views of upper-class Americans. The first three presidents of the United States all subscribed to Deist beliefs. America´s best known Deist were Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, George Washington and Thomas Paine.  In France, the most famous Deists were Rousseau and Voltaire. METHODISM  John Wesley was born in 1703 in Linconshire, a younger son of the Rev. Sanuel Wesley and his wife, both Tory.  John Wesley regularly used the Anglican Book of Common Prayer and adapted it for use in the United States.  Methodism was a movement founded by John Wesley in the 18th century, allegedly to revitalize the Church of England.  The movement survives in the form of the modern Methodist churches worldwide.  At Oxford, Wesley began his search for salvation. There he formed a Holy club.  In 1738, he went through a mystical experience and he felt the need and determination to bring to others what he himself had felt. At first Wesley, who was, and remained, an Anglican, tried to work with the Establishment and preach in church, but, within a year, the Church became hostile and began to close its doors.  Wesley was forced to preach out of doors. This brought him larger audiences and took him to those savage villages and towns which lacked religion.  By 1784, 356 Methodist chapels had been built in places where there were practically no churches.  The basic unit was the class, a group of about dozen members living in the same locality. This class was controlled by a leader, appointed not elected, who reported on the behaviour of his flock. The bands were formed out of the society – the largest local unit.  Wesley believed profoundly in salvation and rebirth, for that was the deepest experience of his own life. A relentless, active, selfless Christian life became the Methodist ideal. Thrift, abstinence, hard work and concentration were the essential virtues of those seeking salvation and those saved.  Wesley believed in witches, in the corporal existence of the devils, and in possessions by devils. He was uninterested in teaching. He considered knowledge of the Bible and of the Catechism sufficient education for any child. He was in favour of child labour. The movement for primary education was not supported by Methodism. There was an envy of luxury, of the aristocratic and libertarian attitude of life.  Wesley hated political philosophers or radical thinkers. For him the proper way to reform was to transform the will of the individual.  By 1760, Methodism was the most highly coordinated body of opinion in the country. Methodism was not a religion of the poor but for the poor. Methodism was especially successful in the expanding industrial areas, where it helped the working people to overcome economic depression by spiritual means and often, by encouraging thrift and simple living, to raise their economic status as well.  The Methodists formed a “society” within the Church of England. Wesley never wished them to leave the church, but after years of strained relations, the formal break with the Church of England came in 1795, four years after Wesley's death.  Methodism began in the 18th century as a religious society that wished to reform the Church of England from within; by force of circumstance it became separate from its parent body and took on the characteristics of an autonomous church. Because of the enthusiasm for missionary activity among both British and American Methodists, the movement has become worldwide.  In America the Methodist Episcopal Church was constituted as an autonomous body in 1784 under the guidance of Francis Asbury and Thomas Coke, who organized the American church according to Wesley's principles but adapted them to the needs of both the settled communities and the frontier.  Despite wide variations in belief, practice, and status, Methodists share an emphasis on those doctrines that: 75  indicate the power of the Holy Spirit to confirm the faith of the believer and to transform one's personal life an insistence that the heart of religion lies in one's personal relationship with God;  a simplicity of worship and a partnership of ordained ministers and laity in the worship and administration of the church;  a concern for the underprivileged and the betterment of social conditions;  the formation of small groups for mutual encouragement and edification;  a connectional system of government (by which all ministers are “in connection” with the central authority of the church, and the agencies of the church are centrally administered). 76